A BRIEF REVIEW ON STEM CELLS

A BRIEF REVIEW ON STEM CELLS

Gaurav Gautam Manwar *, Vaishnavi S. Kalamb and Akash S. Malthankar

Department of Quality Assurance, Vidyaniketan College of Pharmacy, Anjangaon Surji, Amravati, Maharashtra, India.

ABSTRACT: Despite being hard to define, stem cells have a lot of potential as therapeutic agents and as tools for understanding development. Like any new field, though, blind excitement can sometimes eclipse reality. Nine widespread misunderstandings that we feel have an impact on how we assess stem cells as therapeutic possibilities are outlined in this review. We propose that each of these factors should be carefully observed and taken into account when assessing a specific cell for use in therapy. The unquestionable promise of stem cell biology must be assessed using rigorous scientific techniques, and data from both positive and negative trials must be gathered and presented. Stem cell treatments are at show demonstrated for a run of clinical conditions past conventional beginnings to treat hereditary blood illnesses and have seen considerable victory. In this respect, developing utilize for stem cells is their potential to treat torment states and neurodegenerative infections such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s malady. Stem cells offer trust in neurodegeneration to supplant neurons harmed amid certain infection states. This survey compares stem cells emerging from these distinctive sources of root and incorporates clinical parts for stem cells in cutting edge restorative hone.

Keywords: Stem cell, Stem cell classification, Adult stem cell, Embryonic stem cell, Stem cell biology, Application

INTRODUCTION: Researchers from a wide range of disciplines have been drawn to this expansion, and they are concentrating their use of stem cell technology on a variety of fields, such as drug discovery, regenerative medicine, developmental biology, cancer biology, and disease modeling ¹.

A type of cell known as stem cells has the ability to divide, self-renew, and differentiate into distinct mature cell lines. For many years, stem cell therapy has been used to treat neurodegenerative illnesses, particularly Parkinson's disease (PD), with notable results in cell transplantation research ².

As a result, while using stem cell therapy, it's critical to take into account the kind of stem cells being employed, the growth factors being combined with them, and the usage of scaffolds.³ "Primal undifferentiated cells that retain the ability to differentiate into other cell types" is one definition of stem cells ⁴. Although both fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) may be able to sustain their proliferation and multiplication, cells within this second stem cell population have been dubbed epidermal growth factor (EGF)-responsive stem cells ⁵. Perinatal stem cells act as a link between embryonic and adult stem cells; they are neither somatic (adult) stem cells (ASCs) nor embryonic stem cells (ESCs) ⁶. Stem cells are sometimes described as multipotent because they have the capacity to differentiate into any type of cell within a population ⁷. With the potential to improve tissue regeneration, treat degenerative disorders, and even lessen dysfunction related to natural ageing, stem cells have piqued the interest of the general public ⁸. A complex interplay between cell-autonomous and cell-nonautonomous regulatory systems underlies the modulation of tissue development, maintenance, and repair by stem cells ⁹. Precursor cells with the ability to self-renew and give rise to several mature cell types are referred to as stem cells. Classifying cells using this operational idea is only achievable after obtaining and cultivating tissues ¹⁰. All three germ layers' worth of cells can be differentiated from pluripotent stem cells (PSCs), which multiply endlessly. PSCs are desirable sources for cell treatments for a variety of illnesses and injuries due to these two characteristics ¹¹. It is unknown how stem cells balance daughter cell generation with self-renewal, and it may vary. Depending upon tissue ¹². In regenerative medicine, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a valuable source for cell treatment. MSCs have demonstrated encouraging outcomes in both animal models and human clinical trials for mending damaged tissues in a variety of degenerative illnesses ¹³.

FIG. 1: STEM CELLS

Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) offer a wealth of possibilities for regenerative medicine and stem cell research ¹⁴. Plant stem cells could therefore be considered among the most crucial cells for human health. Numerous labs' research over the past few decades has revealed a set of autonomous stem cell systems that meet the unique requirements of plant development and growth in four dimensions ¹⁵. A type of cell known as stem cells (SCs) has the capacity to multiply, self-renew, and differentiate into a range of functional cells under specific conditions ¹⁶. Two other studies, in the meantime, described the discovery of multipotential stem cells of the adult kind ¹⁷. Within the tissues and organs of multicellular animals, cell types specialize in carrying out certain jobs and functions. A class of undifferentiated cells known as stem cells has the capacity to both self-renew and differentiate into mature cells in particular tissue types ^{18, 19}.

What is a Stem Cell ²⁰: The human body is composed of three main types of cells: germ cells, somatic cells, and stem cells. With the exception of red blood cells, which lack nuclei, somatic cells comprise the majority of the cells that make up an adult human. Each somatic cell in its differentiated stage has its own copy, or copies, of the genome. Gametes, or eggs and sperm, are produced by germ cells. A stem cell is defined as a cell that can proliferate endlessly in culture and has the capacity to differentiate into mature, specialized cell types. When a stem cell divides, the Progeny cells have the option to self-renew or follow a pathway that results in the production of a differentiated, specialized cell. To continue as a stem cell, guaranteeing that the adult organ's supply of stem cells is continuously refilled. Nevertheless, many stem cell types may not be suitable for tissue engineering due to their low frequency, challenges in obtaining the niche and isolating the cells, limited lineage potential, and poor development in cell culture. In these situations, ES cells are probably a better choice for a cell source ²¹. Microenvironmental cells that support stem cells and allow them to preserve tissue homeostasis make up stem cell niches. Stem and niche cells engage in a suitable spatiotemporal dialogue to meet the demands of differentiated cells throughout life. Although the niche concept was first presented in 1978, it was mainly ignored until Drosophila research gave rise to a renewed interest in it. The protective habitat that niche cells offer isolates stem cells from stimuli that promote differentiation and stressors that might strain stem cell reserves, such as apoptotic stimuli.

Additionally, the niche protects against overproduction of stem cells, which may cause cancer. In order to generate progenitor or transit amplifying (TA) cells that are dedicated to producing adult cell lineages, stem cells must periodically activate. Thus, a functional niche is characterized by the maintenance of a balance between stem cell quiescence and activity ²⁴.

FIG. 2: BENEFITS AND RESTRICTIONS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF STEM CELLS FOR NEURO-DEGENERATIVE DISEASE TREATMENT

Importance of Stem Cells in Medicine ²³:

1. Stem cells are invaluable in medicine. Patients with cancer or other blood problems can have bone marrow transplants using stem cells found in their bone marrow, known as hematopoietic stem cells.
2. In theory, every tissue in the body that has been lost or harmed by disease or trauma can be repaired using stem cells or their descendants.
3. These possible therapies that are presently being researched include the following.
4. Restoring bone development following an injury.
5. Restoring eyesight in cases of retinal illness.
6. Restoring nerve cell function in Parkinson's, Huntington's, and spinal cord injuries.
7. Repairing the damaged heart tissue.

Stem Cells ²⁵: The general definition of stem cells is that they are undifferentiated cells with the ability to divide and develop into one or more types of specialized cells. However, this notion has recently been reevaluated due to the finding of certain adult cells trans differentiating and dedifferentiating.

Therefore, rather than focusing on a single entity, it has been suggested that it be expanded to encompass a biological activity that can be induced in a variety of cell types, including differentiated cells. Stem cells offer an almost limitless source of cells for tissue engineering, which can differentiate into any or all human tissues based on their type.

Stem Cells as a Cell Source for Tissue Engineering ²⁶: Different cell types, such as adult or embryonic stem cells or mature cells taken from the patient, could be employed for regeneration and repair. Although using the patient's mature cells reduces the requirement for immunosuppressive therapy after implantation, these adult cells might not be the optimal source of cells for tissue regeneration because they have already committed to a certain cell type and undergone differentiation. This method restricts the source of collected tissue for repair to the original injury site and offers less opportunity for future growth.

Sources of Stem Cells in Dentistry ²⁷: Adult stem cells and embryonic stem (ES) cells are the two main sources of stem cells. In addition to these stem cells found in the human body naturally, induced pluripotent stem cells, or iPS cells, have recently been created artificially by genetically modifying somatic cells.

Because ES cells and iPS cells can differentiate into any kind of cell from all three germinal layers, they are together referred to as pluripotent stem cells. Adult stem cells, on the other hand, are mostly multipotent, meaning that they can differentiate into a restricted range of cell types. Here, we provide an overview of the many stem cell types being investigated for dental applications, taking into account their clinical availability.

Stem Cells in Normal Mammary Development ²⁸: The two main traits of stem cells are multilineage differentiation and self-renewal. Self-renewal differs from regular cell proliferation in that it creates progeny that go through certain differentiation events, while regular cell proliferation yields at least one identical progeny. Self-renewals can take two forms: symmetrical and asymmetrical. Symmetric self-renewal, as the name suggests, results in two daughter cells that are identical to both the parent cell and each other, or two stem cells. Conversely, asymmetric self-renewal results in the formation of one progeny that is identical to the parent cell and one that differentiates to become a dedicated progenitor cell. Mammary stem cells are multipotent, meaning they have limited potential for differentiation and are defined by the organs into which they can develop. This is based on their differentiation capabilities.

Stem Cell Classification ²⁹: The human body's non-specialized cells are called stem cells. They possess the capacity for self-renewal and can develop into any type of cell in an organism. Both adult cells and embryonic cells contain stem cells. There are multiple specialization stages.

Stem Cell Classification Based on Differentiation Potential ³⁰:

 Cells with Totipotency: The most undifferentiated cells are totipotent or omnipotent cells, which are present in the early stages of development. The cells of the first two divisions of a fertilized oocyte are totipotent because they can differentiate into extraembryonic and embryonic tissues, which will eventually form the embryo and placenta.

Pluripotent Cells: All tissues and organs emerge from the three germ layers-the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm-which can be differentiated into different types of cells by pluripotent stem cells.

Multipotent Cells: Most tissues contain multipotent stem cells, which can develop into numerous types of cells from a single germ layer. Multipotent stem cells, or MSCs, are the most well-known type of cell. Numerous tissues can be used to make them, including bone, adipose tissue, bone marrow, Wharton's jelly, umbilical cord blood, and peripheral blood. MSCs have certain surface cell markers that identify them, and they attach to cell culture dishes.

Oligopotent Cells: The ocular surface of pigs, including the cornea, has been shown to include oligopotent stem cells that generate individual colonies of corneal and conjunctival cells. Oligopotent stem cells are able to self-renew and form two or more lineages within a single tissue.

Unipotent Cells in the case of muscle stem cells, for example, unipotent stem cells have the ability to self-renew, specialize into a single particular cell type, and establish a single lineage that gives rise to adult muscle cells exclusively. Type I pneumocytes in the lung are produced by type II pneumocytes found in the alveoli.

Origin-Based Stem Cell Classification: Based on where they came from, stem cells can be divided into four major groups: ESCs, foetal and adult stem cells, and iPSCs. Adult stem cells are either oligopotent or unipotent, while ESCs and iPSCs are typically pluripotent.

Stem Cells from Embryos: Pluripotent embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are generated from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst, a stage of the pre-implantation embryo that occurs 5-7 days after fertilization. These cells have the ability to develop into tissue from the three basic germ layers, but they can also be kept in culture for an extended period of time without differentiating. The two layers of cells that make up a blastocyst are the outer cell mass, known as trophoblasts, which forms the placenta, and the inner cell mass, which becomes the embryo. To create ESC lines, cells from the inner cell layer are isolated from trophoblasts and placed in a culture dish under carefully controlled conditions.

Stem Cells in Adults: The source of adult stem cells. MSCs and stem cells produced from placental tissue, such as human amnion epithelial cells, are two examples. It has been demonstrated that these cells reduce inflammation and improve damage repair in animal models. Despite having been differentiated into tissue from various germ cell layers in-vitro, these cells have a limited capacity for differentiation.

Stem Cells residing in tissue-resident stem cells, which produce terminally differentiated cells specific to the injured tissue, are essential for the renewal and repair of some adult tissues and organs. According to studies, these cells are thought to be quiescent during ontogenesis and proliferate, differentiate, or migrate only when stimulated locally.

Pluripotent Stem Cell induction adult somatic cells that have undergone genetic reprogramming to assume an "ESC-like state" are used to create PSCs. By transducing mouse fibroblasts with four genes encoding the following transcription factors—octamer-binding transcription factor 3/4 (OCT3/4), SRY-related high-mobility group box protein-2 (SOX2), the oncoprotein c-MYC, and Kruppel-like factor 4 (KLF4)-Takahashi and Yamanaka reported the first mouse iPSCs in 2006. Depending on the stem cell's pluripotency, each individual daughter cell has the potential to either develop into one or more specialized cells or continue in a symmetric division to produce new stem cells while preserving the population of tissue cells.

FIG. 3: THE CAPACITY TO DIFFERENTIATE AND SELF-RENEW IS A DEFINING FEATURE OF STEM CELLS

Stem Cell Biology ³¹: An increasing constraint on the embryo's developmental fate characterizes early development Fig. 4. In addition to contributing to the tropho-ectoderm and the germ line, the fertilized egg has the capacity to generate a full organism during its early stages of development. The ability of these so-called embryonic stem (ES) cells to give rise to complete organisms is what makes them unique.

Generally speaking, cells from the inner cell mass do not contribute to extraembryonic structures in chimaeras as development moves through the blastula stage. Nonetheless, the core cell mass is pluripotent and can support all germ layers. In-vitro, ES cells can differentiate into a wide variety of cell types, and in-vivo, they can help. All germ layers and gonadal tissue are included.

Our understanding of phenotypic specification has advanced quickly as a result of groundbreaking work done in several laboratories. Similar to in-vivo differentiation, in vitro differentiation involves multiple intermediate phases of cellular differentiation.

There is a complicated vocabulary that is still being established to differentiate between these several levels of differentiation. Any cell that can divide asymmetrically to produce differentiated cells and is capable of self-renewal will be considered a stem cell for the purposes of this review. We will refer to early blastula-stage cells that can contribute to both ectodermal and extraectodermal tissue as totipotent stem cells.

FIG. 4: STEM CELL DEVELOPMENT OUTLINE OF THE PROGRESSIVE RESTRICTION OF STEM CELL POTENTIALS DURING DEVELOPMENT. SOME PROGENY OF TOTIPOTENT STEM CELLS IN THE DEVELOPING BLASTULA (EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS) BECOME RESTRICTED IN THE CELL TYPES THEY CAN GIVE RISE TO AS DIFFERENT TYPES OF TISSUES DEVELOP (TSCS).

Source of Stem Cells ³²: Important factors to take into account include the source of the stem cells, the quantity to be infused, the method of infusion, the patient's age during therapy, and the concentration of stem cells being employed. Nevertheless, there is a dearth of information to address these problems. It is assumed that newborns, and especially infants, create stem cells with higher concentrations and of higher quality. The greatest sources are embryonic cells and placental blood taken from the umbilicus after delivery, if known ahead of time or in high-risk pregnant moms. It could be challenging to extract enough bone marrow-derived stem cells for therapeutic purposes from newborns. A 5 ml solution containing 4 million cells per milliliter of stem cells was utilized. For most youngsters, a single tibial bone marrow puncture has been adequate to accomplish this. On the other hand, 5 ml of solute was obtained for infusion in the neonates with spina bifida using both tibias. In the hopes that stem cells will naturally arrive at the site of the injury or need to develop, alter, and heal the damaged organ, researchers have tried a variety of approaches. This would depend on the stem cells' source, quality, and concentration.

Stem Cells and Cell Cycle Regulation ³³: The capacity of stem cells to self-renew infinitely and to differentiate into various cell lineages is one of their distinguishing features. Ultimately, stem cells divide asymmetrically, resulting in the differentiation of only one of the two daughter cells. Hormones, various transcription factors, and epigenetic alterations are all involved in this intricate process. There are two basic categories of stem cells: somatic, or adult, stem cells, which emerge throughout foetal development and persist throughout life, and embryonic stem cells (ESCs), which are only found in the very early phases of development. Because ESCs are pluripotent, they can differentiate into any type of cell found in the three germ layers. However, somatic stem cells are multipotent and limited to differentiating into cell types unique to the tissue or organ they originate from. Additionally, it has been proposed that a particular class of stem-like cells known as cancer stem cells (CSCs) is to blame for the development of cancer. It is believed that either differentiated cancer cells or somatic stem cells give rise to CSCs.

Adult Stem Cells: Adult stem cells, also known as somatic stem cells (ASCs), are uncommon quiescent cells with a restricted ability for self-renewal and differentiation. The idea that every tissue has its own compartment of stem cells stems from the multiple progenitor cell types that have been discovered in adult tissues Fig. 5. They are in charge of replacing cells that perish inside a particular organ as a result of pathological or physiological processes (wear and tear).

Types of Adult Stem Cells: The biological properties of the intrinsic stem cells of various body compartments-such as the hematopoietic, epithelial, muscular, and neural-are more clearly understood. For almost forty years, hematopoietic stem cells have been used in clinical settings for bone marrow and, more recently, cord blood transplants. Given their stromal ancestry and ability to be extracted from almost any organ in the body, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) may have a perivascular habitat.

FIG. 5: ADULT OR SOMATIC STEM CELLS (ASCS)

ASCs are present in all types of organs and tissues in the organism, as exemplified here by neuronal stem cells in the subventricular zone of the brain, epithelial stem cells, and hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. They are responsible for replenishing cells that die, either through physiological (wear and tear) or pathological processes.

Source of Adult Stem Cells ³⁴: Several publications have suggested the existence of extra pancreatic progenitor cells that give rise to cells. The liver was therefore one of the first organs looked at to locate these cells because of their shared endodermic ancestry with the pancreas. In vitro, human foetal liver epithelial progenitor cells and rodent liver stem cells have been developed into insulin-secreting cells. In the first investigation, insulin appeared in the liver, and the hyperglycemia improved when CMV-promoter-driven Pdx-1 genes were delivered by adenovirus to the liver of diabetic mice treated with streptozotocin. According to Zalzman et al.'s report, Pdx-1 expression in foetal human progenitor liver cells activated multiple-cell genes, produced and released insulin in response to glucose, and restored and maintained normoglycemia for extended periods of time when transplanted into immunodeficient mice with hyperglycemia. Moreover, the gene encoding the catalytic component of human telomerase was introduced to further immortalize these highly replicating cells ³⁵.

Cells Similar to Embryonic Stem: Cells Exist in Adult Tissue because ES cells are pluripotent, they can be cultured for extended periods of time without losing their capacity to contribute to the development of the entire organism, including the germ line. This capacity has been used to create modified mice, each of whose cells can be demonstrated to have originated from a cell that was grown in a dish. The hunt for cells with embryonic stem (ES)-like characteristics that may be obtained from sources other than the inner cell mass has been spurred by the recent finding that similar cells can be created from human blastocysts, which has sparked intense ethical and moral controversy ³⁶.

Self-Renewal of Embryonic Stem Cells ³⁷: The ability of stem cells to repeatedly generate two types of progeny-daughters designated for differentiation and daughter cells with comparable proliferative and developmental potential-defines them. The proliferative life span of ES cells is infinite, and pluripotency is retained in long-lived subclones produced through single-cell expansion. Therefore, it is clear that ES cells satisfy the requirements for self-renewing stem cells. What signals permit or direct their self-renewal.

The coculture process with mid-gestation fibroblasts in the presence of calf serum is intricate and differs greatly from the physiological milieu in which preimplantation embryonic cells are found. Furthermore, the inbred genetic background plays a major role in this culture system's efficacy; mouse strains are classified as permissive or nonpermissive based on whether or not they produce ES cells under these crude culture conditions (Gardner & Brook 1997).In reality, ES cell lines that are nearly always pluripotent and that are generated from serum and feeders come from either a single strain (129) or its hybrids. It's interesting to note that Stevens studied teratocarcinomas using this parental strain, although it's not apparent if there's a shared genetic basis. Moreover, few traditional ES cell derivations contain XX cell lines, and those that do typically lose one of the X chromosomes (Rastan & Robertson 1985). Lastly, genuine chimera-forming ES cells from other animals or even other rodents have not been obtained using the serum and feeder layer approach. The pluripotent inner cell mass of mammalian embryos gives rise to embryonic stem cells (ESCs), which can differentiate into any kind of body cell and self-renew ³⁸.

Stem Cells in the Brain ³⁹: The central canal of the spinal cord, the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, and the brain's lateral ventricle are home to stem cells known as neural stem cells (NSCs). They are strongly associated with the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid, acting as a barrier to the brain and spinal cord parenchyma.

Mesenchymal Stem Cells: The first is the ability to manage limb embryonic mesenchymal stem cells in vitro, which give rise to bone and cartilage in vivo. Secondly, the chondrogenic or osteogenic pathway is just one of the distinct, individual steps in the lineage evolution of these cells. Third, the process that provides positional information and drives the advancement of lineage is known as local cuing, which occasionally involves extremely powerful protein factors. The circumstances for cell culture have been improved to the point that it is now possible to manipulate the cells to control tissue size and function in addition to studying these progressive events detail ⁴⁰. Multipotent mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can differentiate into adaptogenic, chondrogenic, and osteogenic tissues ⁴¹.

Cellular Origin of Cancer Stem Cells ⁴²: It is still unclear exactly where cancer stem cells originated cellularly. It is evident from the fact that several mutations are required for a cell to develop cancer23 that the mutations must accumulate in stem cells in various organs. Similarities between cancer stem cells and healthy stem cells During foetal development, normal somatic stem cells grow from embryonic progenitors (see a). These foetal stem cells differentiate to produce a variety of adult progeny and self-renew to develop daughter stem cells. Although adult stem cells and foetal stem cells frequently develop from each other in the same organs, the characteristics of the two types of stem cells are different. However, in order to preserve adult tissues, adult stem cells frequently carry out multilineage differentiation and self-renewal. While restricted progenitors or differentiated cells may occasionally acquire characteristics of cancer stem cells, such as the ability to self-renew ^{1, 6, 9}, mutations may also occasionally cause cancer stem cells to develop from the mutational transformation of normal stem cells. These pro-cancerous stem cells would be vulnerable to clonal evolution and genetic instability, but their capacity to cause new cancer would set them apart from other cancer cells. The self-renewing nature of stem cells and their capacity to produce phenotypically varied, non-tumorigenic cancer cells (with a reduced capacity for proliferation). Histologically, undifferentiated and differentiated cancer cells can be distinguished in certain malignancies, such as teratocarcinoma. Histology frequently cannot discriminate between undifferentiated and differentiated cancer cells in other malignancies, such as breast cancer, yet research has revealed that only a portion of breast cancer cells can develop tumors after being transplanted into immunocompromised ice. Hence, just as tiny populations of somatic stem cells in most normal tissues drive the growth of those tissues, so too might a minority population of cancer stem cells drive the growth and evolution of many malignancies.

Applications of Stem Cells ⁴³:

Stem Cell-Based Therapy: A Summary of Up-to-Date Clinical Uses:

Diseases of the Digestive System: A single layer of epithelial cells lining the gastrointestinal tract protects it from harmful compounds found in the gut environment. These cells are known to be highly regenerative in response to injuries and normal cell turnover. Under normal circumstances, these epithelial cells divide quickly every two to seven days; after tissue damage and inflammation, this turnover rate increases even further.

Conditions Affecting the Liver: The liver is the largest critical organ in the human body and is responsible for many vital biological processes, such as vitamin storage, metabolism, cleansing of the body, and support for digestion.

Treatment for Cancer: The term "stem cell therapy" in relation to cancer treatment is delicate and should be used and addressed with care. Physicians and researchers should shield cancer patients from costly, potentially hazardous, or ineffective stem cell therapy, as well as healthy individuals from the possibility of developing cancer.

Arthritic: The term "arthritis" refers to a broad range of cartilage disorders that result in joint discomfort and inflammation. The most prevalent type of arthritis is called osteoarthritis (OA), which is brought on by articular cartilage that has not recovered well from ongoing degradation.65 OA causes significant discomfort and a subsequent decrease in the mobility of patients by affecting one or more diarthrodial joints, such as the big knee and hip joints and the minor hand joints.

Cardiovascular Disease: The fact that the cells may exert their therapeutic benefits through immune regulation rather than regenerative function could account for the underwhelming results from the clinical studies conducted thus far.

The use of Stem Cells in Wound Healing ⁴⁴: Larger burns and long-term wounds may have reduced stem cell counts and functions. For instance, it has been demonstrated that a chronic wound environment reduces the rate at which ADSCs proliferate and alters the expression of a few genes that are essential for wound healing in these cells.

iPSC applications are moving into a new stage as technology advances. In addition to iPSC-based models, a significant number of novel approaches, such as three-dimensional (3D) culture technology, microfluidic technology, single-cell RNA sequencing, genome editing, and artificial intelligence, have been developed to expedite disease modelling, cell transplantation, and drug screening in ALS ⁴⁵. Deep learning approaches may be useful in merging phenotypic imaging and computing with microarray methods for large-scale screening. In the future, automated systems will be employed for cell culture and high-throughput screening of candidate chemicals for large-scale synthesis ⁴⁵.

FIG. 6: APPLICATION OF CULTURED EPIDERMAL STEM CELLS

CONCLUSION: In spite of being difficult to characterize, stem cells have a parcel of potential as helpful specialists and as apparatuses for understanding improvement. Like any unused field, in spite of the fact that, daze energy can now and then overshadow reality.

Nine far reaching mistaken assumptions that we feel have an effect on how we evaluate stem cells as helpful conceivable outcomes are laid out in this audit. We propose that each of these components ought to be carefully watched and taken into account when surveying a particular cell for utilize in treatment. The verifiable guarantee of stem cell science must be evaluated utilizing thorough logical strategies, and information from both positive and negative trials must be assembled and displayed. Stem cell medicines are at appear illustrated for a run of clinical conditions past customary beginnings to treat genetic blood ailments and have seen significant triumph. In this regard, creating utilize for stem cells is their potential to treat torment states and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease. Stem cells offer believe in neurodegeneration to supplant neurons hurt in the midst of certain contamination states. This overview compares stem cells developing from these unmistakable sources of root and consolidate clinical parts for stem cells in cutting edge therapeutic sharpen.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: None

CONFLICT OF INTEREST: Authors declares no conflict of interest.

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    How to cite this article:

    Manwar GG, Kalamb VS and Malthankar AS: A brief review on stem cells. Int J Pharm Sci & Res 2025; 16(1): 28-39. doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.16(1).28-39.

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