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A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF THE MEDICINAL PLANT PASSIFLORA FOETIDA LINN

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A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF THE MEDICINAL PLANT PASSIFLORA FOETIDA LINN

Shubashini K. Sripathi * and R. Dhanya Sruthi

Department of Chemistry, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.

ABSTRACT: Passiflora foetida, commonly known as stinking passion flower has been used as traditional medicine in treating diseases such as throat infection, giddiness, liver disorder, diarrhea, tumor, nervous disorder, anxiety; sleep disorders, skin infections, hysteria and asthma. In addition, P. foetida has been reported to have potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiepileptic, anti hyperglycemic, cardio protective, anti-diarrheal, and anti-cancer properties. Metabolites isolated from this plant are mainly flavonoids, polysaccharides, α-pyrones and cyanohydrins. The compounds have been isolated from the leaves, stems, seeds, resins and fruits. The stems of P. foetida have high cellulose content. The leaves and fruits of Passiflora foetida have high nutritional value that they find use as herbal tea, tablets and nutritional powders. Vitexin was quantified by a high-performance thin-layer chromatographic technique. These compounds tend to have diverse biological properties. This review article highlights the secondary metabolites, quantification of phytochemicals, proximate parameters, chemical constituents their activities and applications.

Keywords: Passiflora foetida, Quantification, Flavanoids, HPTLC, Vitexin, GC-MS

INTRODUCTION: The Passiflora is a genus of about five hundred and fifty species of flowering plants belonging to the Passifloraceae family. Passiflora foetida is a valuable medicinal plant native to tropical northern South America and West Indies. This species which is naturalized in many areas due to its properties, is polymorphic and is available in thirty-seven varieties. It is an important fruit crop used for medicinal and ornamental purposes 1. It grows at the edge of forests, plantations, river and creek banks, abandoned fields, roadsides, and moist lands, up to 1000m above sea level on all soil types and wet areas. The medicinal properties of this species is utilized in

folkloric medications for ailments like skin infections, diarrhea, throat infections, wound dressing, liver disorder, itching, tumor, headache, anxiety, nausea, and sleep disorders, as an insecticide, in treating neurological disorders, giddiness, asthma and hysteria 2. In India, the unripe fruit is used as an emetic, while the decoction of the dried herb is said to contain a diuretic effect. In Brazil, this plant is used as a poultice for erysipelas and for treating skin diseases with inflammation. It is reported to aid in treating the digestive problem like dyspepsia and as an astringent and expectorant for spasms 1.

The plant possesses anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, gastroprotective, and hepatoprotective activity. The taxonomic description of this plant is found at https://www.itis.gov (Taxonomic serial 22225). There are a few earlier reviews on Passiflora foetida. A review of the morphological characteristics of the whole plant, its phytopharmacology, and medicinal uses and propagation methods is also reviewed 3. Another study elaborates on the status of the plant nationally and internationally, its geographical distribution, and habitat. The phytochemicals present and the pathway by which components are biosynthesized are summarized 4. A thorough review of Passiflora foetida thorough search of available literature from 1989 to 2021 about the following aspects is presented in this paper.

  • Proximate analysis of Passiflora foetida
  • Quantification of constituents of Passiflora foetida
  • Chemical constituents of Passiflora foetida
  • Compounds quantified from HPTLC
  • Constituents identified by gas chromatographic analysis
  • Nano studies on Passiflora foetida
  • Medicinal potential of Passiflora foetida
  • Patents on Passiflora foetida

Qualitative Phytochemical Analysis of Passiflora foetida: The vast majority of the Passiflora plants grow wild in Southern and Central America and Mexico. However many species are also seen in the tropics too. Phytochemical screening of various parts of Passiflora foetida revealed the presence of essential oils and the common classes of secondary metabolites. It is host to cardiac glycosides also.

The fresh leaves are found to be cyanogenic in nature. However the mature leaves, fruits and seeds are of good medicinal potential. Phytochemical screening of the leaves indicated presence of alkaloids, saponins, tannins, glycosides, anthraquinones, carbohydrates, sugars and phenolic compounds in addition to vitamins and volatile oils 5, 6. Fresh fruits contain carbohydrates, flavonoids, alkaloids, phenols, terpenoids, tannins and saponins 6, 7. The seeds were found to contain alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, phenol, and saponins 7.

Proximate Analysis of Passiflora foetida: The proximate parameters of fruits of Passiflora foetida reported earlier are tabulated in Table 1. Other parts of the plant are not yet screened for these parameters 8.

TABLE 1: PROXIMATE ANALYSIS FOR FRUITS OF PASSIFLORA FOETIDA

Part Composition (g/100g fresh fruit) Weight (g)
Fruit Edible portion 62.73-8.85
Inedible portion 10.15-37.27
Water content 76±1
Fat content 13±2
Protein 0.15±0.01
Ash 1.7±0.3

Nutritional Composition: The nutrient content of the fruits as reported 8 is presented in Table 2. The data indicates that the fruits are rich in sugars, organic acids, amino acids and minerals

TABLE 2: NUTRIENT CONTENT OF THE FRUITS

Sugars
Sugars Total sugars (%)
Glucose 47.90
Fructose 47.90
Sucrose 4.20
Organic Acids
Organic acids Total organic acids (%)
Oxalic acid 29.17
Tartaric acid 4.17
Malic acid 4.17
Ascorbic acid 12.50
Citric acid 50.00
Amino Acids
Amino acids Total amino acids (%)
Aspartic acid 10.02
Serine 5.20
Glutamic 18.51
Glycine 5.74
Alanine 5.31
Cystine 1.64
Tyrosine 1.55
Phenyalanine 7.02
Arginine 12.76
Proline 4.20
Methionine 0.91
Threonine 3.71
Isoleucine 3.68
Leucine 6.75
Lysine 5.34
Histidine 2.61

Mineral Composition: Passiflora foetida fruits contain minerals such as phosphorus and potassium in higher levels 8.

TABLE 3: MINERAL CONTENT OF THE FRUITS OF PASSIFLORA FOETIDA

Minerals Total minerals (%)
Manganese 0.05
Copper 0.04
Iron 0.15
Zinc 0.17
Phosphorus 14.44
Sodium 1.68
Magnesium 6.71
Potassium 75.70
Calcium 1.06

Quantification of Phytochemical Content: Phytochemicals like alkaloids, phenols, flavonoids, saponins, and carbohydrates were quantified from the leaves and fruits of the plant.

Leaves are rich in alkaloids, phenol, flavonoids, and carbohydrates, whereas fruits contain more flavonoids and saponins.

TABLE 4: PHYTOCHEMICALS QUANTIFIED FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF PASSIFLORA FOETIDA

Phytochemical Method Standard used Concentration mg/g Reference
Leaves Fruits
Alkaloids Bromocresol Green reagent Atropine 5.162 0.260 [6]
Phenols Folin Ciocalteau reagent Gallic acid 2.464 1.66 [6]
Flavonoid Aluminium chloride colorimetric method Quercetin 0.238 4.56 1 [6]
Rutin 17.10 - [9]
Saponin Separation procedure Diosgene 0.953 1.442 [6]
Carbohydrate Phenol sulphuric acid method D-Glucose 3.897 - [9]

Chemical Constituents of Passiflora foetida: The first report on the isolation of chemical constituents was made in 1980. This plant is found to elaborate largely on flavonoids and their glycosides.

The leaves and stems of this plant have been mainly investigated for their chemical constituents. The chart below gives the structure of the compounds isolated from Passiflora foetida.

Constituents of Leaves: The flavonoid compounds pachypodol [C1], ermanin [C3] and methoxylated derivatives of apigenin and naringenin (7, 4’-dimethoxyapigenin [C2], 4’, 7-O-dimethylapigenin [C4], 4’,7-O-dimethylnaringenin [C5]) and the 3,5-dihydroxy-4,7-dimethoxy flavonone [C6] have been isolated from the leaves 10, 11.

Passifloricidine [C7], a stress-induced anti-microbial metabolite, was extracted by a one-step purification method from the vegetative leaf cuttings of Passiflora foetida 12.

Constituents of Stem: Ten flavonoids were isolated from the stem bark of Passiflora foetida, namely apigenin [C8], luteolin [C9], luteolin-7-O-glucoside [C10], orientin [C11], chrysoeriol [C12], tricin [C13], tamarixetin [C14] and vitexin-2”-O-xyloside [C15] 13. The stem is reported to contain 77.9 wt% of cellulosic content, which is significant in paper industry 14.

Constituents of Fruits: A novel polysaccharide PFP1 [C16] was isolated by hot water extraction, ethanol precipitation, and column chromatography and proposed as a potential immune-enhancing food 15.

Three salt-eluted polysaccharides were isolated from the fruits PFP2 [C17], PFP3 [C18], PFP4 [C19] they were structurally similar but had different molecular weights 16.

Constituents of Resin: Ten flavonoids were isolated from the ethanolic extract of the resin of Passilfora foetida, namely kumatakenin [C20], 5-hydroxy-7,4’-dimethoxy flavone [C21], quercetin 3,3-dimethyl ether [C22], pachypodol [C1], 5- hydroxyl - 3, 7, 4-trimethoxyflavone [C23], persi-cogenin [C24], ermanin [C3] and 5-hydroxy-7,4’dimethoxy flavanone [C25]  17.

Further, the resin was extracted with ethanol to give three polyketide α-pyrones named passifloricins [C26], [C27], [C28] 18.

Constituents of Seeds: Seeds of Passiflora foetida collected on the Galapagos Islands were found to contain five cyanohydrins glycosides with a cyclopentene ring and characterized as tetraphyllin A [C29], tetraphyllin B sulphate [C30], deidaclin [C31] and volkenin [C32].

Seeds of the same plant collected on Reunion Island contained cyclopentanone tetraphyllin B [C33], volkenin [C32], and tetraphyllin B sulphate [C30]. The species elaborated the valine-derived glycoside linamarin [C34] from Reunion Island.

This study revealed the significance of the plant's geographical location in synthesizing its constituents and its morphological characteristics 19.

Compounds Quantified from HPTLC: The flavonoid vitexin was quantified in the leaves of Passiflora foetida 20 and in herbal formulations containing leaves of Passiflora foetida by High-Performance Thin-Layer chromatographic method. The protocols adopted are given below in Table 5.

TABLE 5: QUANTIFICATION OF VITEXIN FROM LEAVES OF PASSIFLORA FOETIDA

Parameter Protocol – I 20 Protocol – II 21
Standard phase Silica gel 60 F254 HPTLC plate 20 × 10 cm glass-coated silica gel 60 F254 plates
Mobile phase Ethyl acetate: methanol: distilled water: formic acid  (50:2:3:6, v/v) Ethyl acetate: methanol: water: formic acid 30: 4: 2: 1(%, v/v/v/v)
Detector TLC Densitometric detector TLC Densitometric detector
Wavelength 340nm 340nm
Injection Volume 10µL 10µL
Rf 0.70 0.49
Range of Linearity (µg/mL) 2.5–17.5 0.1-0.7
Correlation coefficient 0.996 0.9966
LOQ (mg/mL) 0.879 0.0065
LOD(mg/mL) 0.290 0.01512

Protocol II is a simple and efficient method for the estimation of vitexin since it revealed better Rf value and linearity range than protocol I 21.

Constituents Identified by Gas Chromato-graphic Analysis: Gas chromatographic analysis has analyzed extracts of the various parts of Passiflora foetida. The protocols adopted and the compounds predicted are listed in the tables below.

Protocol I was adopted for seeds and fruits 7 and protocol II for the essential oil from fruits and stems 22.

TABLE 6: PROTOCOLS ADOPTED IN GC-MS ANALYSIS

Parameters Protocol I 7 Protocol Ii 22
Instrument Gc Clarius 500 Perkin Elmer) Analyzer Agilent 7809a Gas Chromatograph
Ion Source Temperature - 200ºC
Spectral Range M/Z - 50-700
Scan Rate Amu/Sec - 1428
Column Elite-1 Hp-5ms
Length (M) 30 30
Diameter (Mm) 0.25 0.25
THICKNESS (µm) 1 0.25
Flow Rate Ml/Min 1 1

TABLE 7: CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS PREDICTED BY GC-MS ANALYSIS OF PASSIFLORA FOETIDA

Plant Part analyzed and Compounds Predicted
Protocol I 7 Protocol I 22
Seeds Fruits Essential oil of Stems Essential oil of Fruits
Cyclopropane dodecanoic acid, 2-octyl, methyl ester

Oxalic acid, isobutyl nonyl ester Nonanoic acid, 9-oxo-, methyl ester

Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester

11-Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester

Hexadecanoic acid, 15-methyl-methyl ester

11-Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester

Octane, 2,4,6-trimethyl

Octane, 2,4,6-trimethyl

Heptadecane, 2,6-dimethyl

9,12-Octadecadienoic acid, methyl ester Phthalic acid, isobutyl octyl ester

 1,3,5-Cycloheptatriene

11,14-Eicosadienoic acid, methyl ester

11,14-Eicosadienoic acid, methyl ester

2',3'-Dideoxyribonolactone

2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-methyl

4H-Pyran-4-one,2,3-dihydro-3,5- dihydroxy-6-methyl

5-Hydroxymethylfurfural

7-Hexadecenoic acid, methyl ester, (Z)

Furan

Furfura

Hexadecanoic acid, 15-methyl-, methyl ester

Hexadecanoic acid, 15-methyl-, methyl ester

Levoglucosenone

N-Aminopyrrolidine

Propargyl alcohol

 

 (R)-(-)-14-Methyl-8-hexadecyn-1-ol

Bromoaceticacid, tetradecylester

Cyclotetradecane

Dioctylphthalate

E,E-6,11-Tridecadien-1-ol acetate

Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone

Methylpalmitate

Oleamide

Pentadecanal

Phthalic acid, 8 chlorooctylisobutyl ester

Phytol

Tetradecanal

Z,Z-7,10-Hexadecadienal

 5-butyldocosane

7a-isopropenyl-4,5-dimethyloctahydroniden-4-ylmethanol

9-Tricosane

Carbonicacid   octadecylvinylester

Caryophyllene

Cyclotetradecane

Ethyllinoleate

Galaxolide

Heneicosane

Linoleic acid

Octadecane

Oleamide

Palmitic acid

Tetradecanal

Trans 3-eicosane

Tricosane

Trogodermal

Nanoparticle Synthesis: Bio-mediated nanoparticle synthesis is the decade's trend. Silver, iron oxide, and copper nanoparticles were synthesized from leaf extracts of Passiflora foetida. Iron oxide nanoparticles prepared using leaf aqueous extract of Passiflora foetida were found to be spherical with size ranging from 10 to 16nm 23. Copper and silver nanoparticles synthesized by conventional methods from leaf extract of Passiflora foetida showed absorption maximum at 350 and 435.13nm, respectively 24, Reddy et al., 2018). Zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by cavitation technique from fruit peels of Passiflora foetida. The nanoparticles were confirmed to have hexagonal wurzite structure with 58nm size 26. A low-cost silver nanoparticle fabrication was attempted by immersing a circular disk of Passiflora foetida leaf (2 cm) in silver nitrate solution. This method is proposed as a cost-effective process of synthesis of stable nanoparticles 27.

Medicinal Potential of Passiflora foetida: Passiflora foetida is well known for its medicinal properties. The extracts have been analyzed for their anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, hepato-protective, antiepileptic, analgesic, anti-ulcer, antioxidant, hyperglycemic, cytotoxic, anti-diarrheal, cardioprotective, anti-dyslipidemia, osteoporotic, apoptic and hypersensitivity activity. Notably, its ethyl acetate extract exhibits a high anti-oxidant potential with an IC50 of 25.18 µg/mL in ABTS assay.

TABLE 8: ACTIVITY STUDIES REPORTED IN THE EXTRACTS OF PASSIFLORA FOETIDA

S. no. Plant Part Extracts Activity Studied and method adopted Activity Potential Reference
1. Fruits Ethanol extract Hepatoprotective (in albino mice) - [28]
2. Leaf Methanol Antiepileptic (in swiss albino mice by maximum electroshock-induced convulsions and pentylenetetrazol-induced convulsions) Maximum activity was found at 100mg/kg and 300mg/kg. [29]
3. Leaf Methanol Analgesic Maximum activity at 100mg/kg. [29]
4. Leaf Ethanol extract Analgesic (Hot plate test and Writhing test in mice) Writhing test (37.50±0.65) and hot plate test (13.50±0.43) [30]
5. Ethanol extract Anti-Ulcer (aspirin-induced model and absolute ethanol-induced model) 100 and 200mg/kg reduced ulcer index to 67.83 and 79.45% and 64.30 and 71.66% in aspirin and ethanol models, respectively [31]
6. Fruits - Anti-oxidant activity (DPPH method) SC50 = 2.75-6.38mg/mL [8]
7. Leaf Ethyl acetate Anti-oxidant activity (DPPH and ABTS method) IC50 for DPPH= 614.405 µg/mL and IC50 for ABTS = 25.18 µg/mL [32]
8. Leaf Ethanol Anti-inflammatory activity (Carrageenan-induced acute paw edema and Histamine induced acute paw edema) significant acute anti-inflammatory effect carrageenan [(1.302±0.079) mL] Histamine [1.523±0.052) mL] [30]
9. Leaf Methanol Anti-inflammatory [33]
10. Leaf Aqueous Anti-hyperglycemic Highest activity was observed at 90mins at a dose of 433mg/kg. [34]
11. Ethanol Anti-hyperglycemic Lowers blood sugar at 400mg/kgbw [35]
12. Ethanol Anti-diarrhoeal activity Decreased the number of stools at the dosage of 500 and 250 mg/kg. [36]
13. Ethanol Cytotoxic activity

(Brine shrimp assay)

 LC50 of the extract at 320µg/mL was 80µg/mL [36]
14. Methanol Cytotoxicity (HeLa cell line culture) IC 50 – 21.55µG/ml [37]
15. Seeds Ethanol Cardioprotective activity 100mg/kg body weight [38]
16. Leaves E thanol Anti-dyslipidemia At the dose of 500 mg/kg, body weight showed a significant lowering effect on dextrose-induced diabetic rats [39]
17. Butanol and Ethanol Osteoporotic activity Ethanolic extract – 500 and 750mg/kg/day and butanolic fraction -50 and 100mg/kg/day were effective [40]
18. Leaves Methanol Apoptic activity - [41]
19. Ethanol Hypersensitivity [42]
20. Ethyl acetate Anti-bacterial activity MIC values are 0.4%, 0.8% and 1.6%. MBC 0.8% and 1.6%. [43]

Toxicity Studies: Administration of Passiflora foetida leaf extract did not affect rats' food intake, body weight and organ weight as reported in a toxicity assay 44. It was proposed that the presence of C-glycosyl flavonoids such as vitexin and isovitexin may play a major role in decreasing corticosteroid synthesis in the adrenal cortex, indicating the safety of the use of the leaf extract. However, yet another study reported the leaves to be toxic to goats, which, when administered two days after collection at a dose of 40g per kg body weight, was found non-toxic. Still, the plant, when administered immediately after collection at a rate of 4-8g was found to have toxic effects. The goat, administered with 8g of the extract, showed clinical signs but recovered after treatment with thiosulfate. In a subsequent study, the leaves were fed to goats in different seasons, and the results showed that this plant was more toxic in the summer than in the rainy season 45.

Patents on Passiflora foetida: Patents on herbal teas, nutritional powders, and tablets prepared with leaves and fruits of P. foetida have been reported. Leaves of Passiflora foetida made into herbal tea, and other herbs are reported to arrest cough and moisten the lungs. This tea which has a sweet taste and low sugar content, is proposed to have no adverse effects even on long-term administration 46. Health tablets were made with Passiflora foetida and Gynura bicolor as base materials to help detoxify and clean the lungs to relieve cough, stop bleeding and remove swelling 47.

The fruit of Passiflora foetida is made into a nutritional powder and used as a beverage for detoxification. It helps remove the heat from the lungs, warming the stomach, getting rid of swelling, and detoxifying 48. A healthy tea was made using the fruits of Passiflora foetida and the flowers of vitex. It was found to produce health benefits like elevating qi (energy) to alleviate pain, helping in curing malaria, and detoxifying the lungs. The product is said to have a rich aroma and high nutritional value 49.

CONCLUSION: Medicinal plants pave the way for the discovery of novel drugs used to cure many diseases. These drugs come with improved efficacy and efficiency. This review contains complete information about the plant Passiflora foetida. The quantitative and qualitative aspects of phytochemicals, bioactive components, biomarkers, folkloric use, isolated compounds, and activities are reviewed in this paper. Passiflora foetida predominantly elaborates flavonoids. The stems are found to be a good source of cellulose (77.9 wt %) and hence proposed as an alternate source of the paper making of cellulosic content

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The authors thank Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women for providing facilities.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST: Nil

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    How to cite this article:

    Sripathi SK and Sruthi RD: A comprehensive review of the medicinal plant Passiflora foetida Linn. Int J Pharm Sci & Res 2023; 14(6): 2809-17. doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.14(6).2809-17.

    All © 2023 are reserved by International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. This Journal licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.

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2809-2817

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English

IJPSR

Shubashini K. Sripathi * and R. Dhanya Sruthi

Department of Chemistry, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.

adusks2@gmail.com

27 September 2022

26 November 2022

28 November 2022

10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.14(6).2809-17

01 June 2023

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