A STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANT DIVERSITY OF SACRED NATURAL SITES OF PANCHKOSHI PILGRIMAGE OF VARANASI, UTTAR PRADESH INDIA

A STUDY OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANT DIVERSITY OF SACRED NATURAL SITES OF PANCHKOSHI PILGRIMAGE OF VARANASI, UTTAR PRADESH INDIA

Sanoj Kumar Patel, Anil Sharma, Amit Kumar Tiwari and Gopal S. Singh ^*

Institute of Environment & Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi - 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India.

ABSTRACT: Introduction: Medicinal plants have always played a major role in primary health care system since time immemorial. Sacred natural sites is the prime place to encompass large medicinal plant with wide range of natural resources. It potentially conserves plant biodiversity with inclusion of sacred places and sacred water bodies. Apart from social and religious importance it, regulate air and water quality of environment. The purpose of this study was to document the floristic diversity and traditional approaches towards the ethnomedicinal plants of Sacred Natural Sites of Panchkoshi Pilgrimage of Varanasi district, Uttar Pradesh India. Methods: An ethnobotanical survey was conducted from May 2016 to April 2018. The information collected through open-ended and semi-structured questionnaire and data were analyzed through Informant consensus factor (ICF). Results: During the field study, 66 medicinal plant species belonging to 62 genera and 36 families used to heal different illnesses were recorded. Fabaceae has the dominant family with 8 plant species and Apocynaceae and Moraceae with 5 plant species followed by Malvaceae, Poaceae, Solanaceae, and Lamiaceae. With regard to life form, trees (46.97%) were the primary source of medicinal plants and leaves (32.22%) were the regularly utilized plant part. Moreover, the mode of preparation of plant remedies was decoction (25.77%). The highest ICF value was recorded for muskulo-skeletal problem (0.96). Conclusions: This study helps in prioritizing to create awareness among the locals regarding the needs for conservation of plants and related indigenous knowledge. It would also expand and contribute green cover of expanding urbanized district of Varanasi.

Ethnomedicinal plants, Varanasi, Sacred Natural Site, Indigenous knowledge

INTRODUCTION: The worship of nature is a very ancient culture of Indian society. The conservation of nature and its resources is the key objective of this cultural philosophy in rural as well as urban region ¹. The indigenous community essentially associated with the various component of the natural environment and develop their nature-based traditional knowledge system for the treatment of various ailments across the globe ².

The local community also think themselves, as the link of these living and non-living feature of the environment in these mythical association ¹. These kinds of beliefs and practices empower the sacred sites and shrines to survive hundreds of years in several descendants of community, which deposited a large diversity of local biodiversity ^{3, 4, 5}.

The highly reputed international organization such as Man and Biosphere (MAB), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and World Heritage Convention (WHC) are previously illustrate the potential significance of sacred site and shrine in conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity. A sacred natural site is less disturb or virgin spots of natural forest, which are conserved by the local community through religious and cultural beliefs since the pre-Vedic period ⁶. This spiritual faith has been protected the landscape towards the forces of anthropogenic activity over a long period of time at the global scale ⁷. The sacred site is the natural laboratory of the ecosystem services, and religion is a strong tool for convincing people towards conservation of nature and continuous use of their future demands ⁸. Besides these services, it also renders many cultural services such as spiritual, aesthetic, intrinsic and educational that provided the last shelter for threatening species ⁹.

Sacred sites/shrines have large harbor of medicinally important plant species ^{10, 11}. The herbal medicine provided the therapeutic requirement for>80% people of the world, which mostly cover the remote areas of developing countries ¹². These biodiversity-rich landscapes are found in every village, whereas some important sites are shared by many villages as their own deity ¹³. The sacred places generally related to the temple shrine which deliver cultural importance.

Sacred sites are well acknowledged for its social facilities such as places for public meeting as well as recreational and aesthetic services ¹⁴. The importance of sacred places and shrine in the conservation of vegetation diversity are stated ^{15, 16}. Conservation of biodiversity through shrine and temple spaces in the urban and suburban region is also reported ^{17, 18}. Due to the conservation practices, the unique assemblage of the sacred and medicinal plant is found. Most of the study on medicinal plant of sacred sites in India is reported from Himalayan and south India region^{19, 9} while, few study were reported from central and eastern India ^{20, 11}.

The present study was done on the ancient pilgrimage route of ‘Panchkoshi Yatra’ of the holy city of Varanasi in the State of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is one of the purest pilgrims of the Hindu religion. The main objective of this study to explore and document the ethno-medicinal importance of plant biodiversity of these sacred places.

FIG. 1: GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF STUDY AREA

Study Area: The “Panchkoshi Yatra” is an ancient pilgrimage path of Varanasi district, which is a combination of two Hindi word Panch (natural number five) and Koshi refer to krosh denoted the unite of distance determine equal to 2.2 miles (3.54 km). This pilgrimage covers a distance of 25 krosh (55.2 miles or 88.5 km). Pilgrimage passes five-night halt where they are staying during the journey namely Kardameshwar, Bhimchandi, Rameshwar, Shivpur, and Kapildhara with 44 dharmasalas (rest houses for pilgrims).

This five-night halt considered sacred and contained high depository of medicinal and sacred plant diversity. The path of this journey marks the outer boundary of the territorial zone of Varanasi and pronounced as Kashi mandala. The pilgrimage comprises two landscape, 75.5 km distance as road and 13 km distance as Ganga riverfront ghats. The path is passed from 108 sacred shrine and 84 Varanasi heritage Ganga river ghats. Its origin is considered previously the 16^th century has delicate to Lord Shiva Table 1.

TABLE 1: LOCATION AND DEVOTED DEITY OF SNS/PLACES OF PANCHKOSHI PILGRIMAGE OF VARANASI

FIG. 2: (A) RITUAL PERFORMED AT KARDAMESHWAR KUND, (B) CONSERVATION OF SACRED TREE THROUGH WORSHIP, (C) AND (D) DEPOSITION OF HERB DATURA METEL AND LANTANA CAMARA ON SACRED NATURAL SITES

MATERIALS AND METHODS: A systematic and extensive survey for plant collection was performed for the inquiry of complete plant diversity which comprises herb, shrub, grass, and tree species of five sacred places of pilgrimage, including four seasons, from May 2016 to April 2018. On-field meetings and semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect required information ⁸. Historical background and local management of sacred sites were discussed with the local people at the study site ²¹. Information about the pilgrimage was asked by headmen of village, priests and knowledgeable persons of the village.

Related information of Panchkoshi Yatra was gathered by informants through formal and informal discussions and site observation. This information has been collected from 5 sacred places of Panchkoshi route of Varanasi district. The list of plants was prepared using the International Plant Names Index (http://www.ipni.org) and the plant list (http://www.theplantlist.org). The voucher specimens were placed in the laboratory herbarium of IESD, BHU.

Data Analysis: The data pertaining to ethnobotanical perspectives were classified into 9 broad categories of diseases which include gastrointestinal, skin problem, generalized, urogenital, muskulo-skeletal, lung, circulatory, animal and other diseases.

Informant Consensus Factor (ICF): This is used to test the homogeneity of knowledge about the ethnomedicinal plants ²².

The ICF was calculated as:

ICF = Nur-Nt/Nur

Nur = Number of use-reports for a particular use category; Nt = Number of taxa used for a particular use category by all informants.

ICF values are less if there is no information available about the particular plant and approach one when known information exists in the community or informants ²³.

RESULT:

Medicinal Plant Diversity and their Ethnobotanical Uses: The five sacred natural sites cover a total of 4.64 ha of area with an average of 0.928 ha per sacred place. These places are excellent microhabitat of multilayer vegetation of herbs, shrubs, and trees. In the inventory of ethnomedicinal healing of plants in various ailments, 66 plant species under 62 genera and 36 families were reported. Fabaceae was the dominant family with 8 plant species and Apocynaceae and Moraceae dominated by 5 plant species each followed by Malvaceae, Poaceae, Solanaceae and Lamiaceae by 3 plant species. Out of the 66 plant species, 46.97% was the tree and the remaining 28.79% herbs and 12.12% species shrub followed by 4 species of grass and climber. In total use n = 66, 69.97% were wild, 22.72% cultivated and 7.58% were found as both wild and cultivated Table 2.

The plant species were used for treating various ailments such as digestive problems, stomach aches, colds and coughs, fever/headache, cuts and wounds, skin diseases, rheumatism, liver disorders, etc. The frequency of plant species to cure a particular disease was also estimated and a maximum of 31 plants were used to cure gastrointestinal problems (Diarrhea, dysentery, liver problems, intestinal-worms), 21 for skin related problems, 15 for lung problem (Cough and cold, asthma, tuberculosis), 13 for generalized diseases (fever/headache) 8 for urogenital problems, 7 for animal diseases (dog bite, scorpion/snake bite) 6 for other diseases, 5 for muskulo-skeletal problem (Rheumatism, bone fracture) and 4 for circulatory problems (blood purifiers) Table 2.

TABLE 2: ETHNOBOTANICAL VALUE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS WITH THEIR USE REPORTS OF SACRED SITES

Habit-T= Tree, H= Herb, S= Shrub, Cl= Climber, G= Grass; Habitat-W= Wild, C= Cultivated, W/C= Wild/Cultivated; Disease-SK= Skin problem, GI= Gastrointestinal problem, LN= Lung problems, MS= Muskulo-skeletal disorder, GN= Generalized diseases, Anm= Animal diseases, UR= Urogenital problems, CI= Circulatory problem, OU= other use

Plant Parts Use and Preparations: Leaves were the most frequently used plant parts (32.22%) followed by bark (16.66%), fruits (15.55%), root (11.12%), flower (6.66%), stem (5.55%), seed (4.44%), whole plant and rhizome (2.22% each) and bulb, twig and latex (1.12% each) respectively Fig. 3a.

The common preparation methods were grouped into 10 categories. The plant remedies were prepared by decoction (25.77%) followed by paste (19.58%), juice (16.49%), powder (12.37%), infusion (8.24%), oral (7.21%), chewing and oil (4.13% each) and poultice and brushing (1.04% each) respectively Fig. 3b.

FIG. 3: (A) MODES OF PREPARATION (B) VARIOUS PLANT PARTS USED

Informant Consensus of Factor (ICF) Level for Therapeutic Purposes: Medicinal plants showing high ICF values were supposed to be potent in treating a particular disease. In the study area, gastro-intestinal, skin problems, lung problems, generalized diseases, urogenital and muskulo-skeletal problems were very common. The maximum number of use reports were 456 and 31 plants for gastro-intestinal, 348 use reports with 21 plants for skin problems, 195 use reports with 15 plants for lung problems, 181 use reports with 13 plants were reported for generalized diseases. While 138 and 122 use reports with 8 and 5 plants for urogenital and muskulo-skeletal problems respectively were reported in Table 3.

TABLE 3: INFORMANT CONSENSUS FACTOR FOR DISEASE CATEGORIES

DISCUSSION: Indian civilization had nurtured with a piece of rich traditional knowledge and ethnomedicinal plant wealth that surfaced harboring one of the key producers of the medicinal resources of the world. Despite the expansion of medical services most of the marginal community of peri-urban and rural region are still depends on the medicinal plant for treatment of several health problems ⁸. Like several regions of India, the local communities of Varanasi district nurtured rich socio-cultural diversities with unique native plant knowledge.

Medicinal Plant Diversity, Life Forms, Parts used and Preparation: The maximum number of plant species was reported to grow in the wild form. The local people of the study area collect wild medicinal plants from their surrounding environment to make medicinal preparation for curative purposes. The similar result was reported by Güneş et al., ²⁴ in Chinglai valley and Jan et al. ²⁵

It was observed that trees as the dominant life forms among the reported medicinal plants. It is supported by our results ²⁶. It is because of the rich tree diversity in the study area and their abundant use in medicinal virtues.

Leaves were used for treating several diseases solely or in combined with other plant parts. This result is also reported by other scholars ^{27, 28, 29, 30, 31}. Leaves are easily available and frequently includes in most of the preparations compared to fruits, roots, flowers and relatively easy to grind compared to other plant parts ³².

The decoction is the common method of preparation that imitates similar outcomes in other studies ^{33, 34, 35, 36}.

Informant Consensus Factor (ICF): The ICF of ethnomedicinal knowledge ranged from 0.96 to 0.88 with an average ICF value of 0.92. Medicinal plants showing high ICF value was muskulo-skeletal problem indicated peoples were familiar with bone-setting properties of plants (ICF of 0.96). It is also supported by Upadhya ³⁷. Plants used to treat the skin and urogenital problems showed the ICF of 0.94 each, indicating skin problem is very common in the study area and people are also familiar with the treatment of the urogenital problem by using some medicinal plants such as Asparagus recemosus and Bombaxceiba. This report is also supported by Rahman and Gulshana³⁸ and Jain ³⁹. The prevalence of gastrointestinal and generalized problem (ICF 0.93 each) in the study area may be due to the low availability of hygienic food and drinking water. This report is also supported by Amjad ⁴⁰ and Dey and De ⁴¹. Plants used to treat the lung and circulatory problem (ICF of 0.92 each) indicated the people of the study area are quite knowledgeable about treating cold and cough problems and blood purification ⁴².

Similar to the sacred groove of remote areas, SNS of urban and peri-urban also conserve by religious and cultural motivation and attitude of local community. This sagacity of beliefs in regional divinities, promotes sustainable natural resource utilization as well as strengthens local culture with close linkage of environment. In due course of rapid urbanization and unplanned development of Varanasi city disturb the sacredness of these places ^{43, 44}. The most area of Varanasi is prone to invasion of invasive species due to large construction in peri-urban region ⁴⁵. It leads threat to native vegetation system with combination of air, water, and solid waste pollution. Modernization of society also receding the attitude of younger generation towards these places. Whereas government and local institutions develop these sacred places by cementation of most open land towards nature conservation. This cementation harms the growth of old plantation and destroys the germination of new seedlings. Analyzing the healing importance of medicinal plant and anthropogenic intimidation. There is need for future research to assess the threats and conservation of these cultural heritage of Varanasi city. Because it represents most of the medicinal plant diversity as well as green cover of the city.

CONCLUSION: Varanasi is known for the colorful culture, religion pilgrimage places, and devotees. This inventory reveals that sacred natural site of the urban and peri-urban areas has great depositories of medicinally important plant species. Majority of species of these places used in primary healthcare treatment of local and rural populations. Sacred sites have rich biodiversity with tradition and culture which is not seen anywhere in this most urbanized district. It also provided the natural in-situ conservation model to conserve the medicinal plant diversity. The investigation of medicinal properties of plant creates a new vista to explore the medicinal knowledge of local people for drug discovery. Conservation of plant species of sacred natural sites in need of hour not only for the medicinal healthcare of local community but also for various ecosystem services.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The authors are grateful to the Director and Head of Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, BHU Varanasi, for providing all necessary facilities; and to all people who kindly shared their knowledge.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests

REFERENCES:

1. Singh S, Youssouf M, Malik ZA and Bussmann RW: Sacred groves: myths, beliefs, and biodiversity conservation - a case study from Western Himalaya, India. International Journal of Ecology 2017.
2. Wurchaih H and Menggenqiqig K: Medicinal wild plants used by the Mongol herdsmen in Bairin Area of Inner Mongolia and its comparative study between TMM and TCM. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2019; 15: 32.
3. Rakotoarivelo NH, Rakotoarivony F, Ramarosandratana AV, Jeannoda VH, Kuhlman A R, Randrianasolo A and Bussmann RW: Medicinal plants used to treat the most frequent diseases encountered in Ambalabe rural community, Eastern Madagascar. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2015; 11(1): 68.
4. Lee E and Krasny ME: Adaptive capacity in community forest management: A systematic review of studies in East Asia. Environmental Management 2017; 59(1): 34-49.
5. Jackson W and Ormsby A: Urban sacred natural sites–a call for research. Urban Ecosystems 2017; 20(3): 675-81.
6. UNESCO: Natural sacred sites - cultural diversity and biological diversity 1998; [www document]. URL http://home.world.com.ch/negeter/201_98iSacredSiteUNESCO PARIS.htm1
7. Ganie AH, Tali BA, Khuroo AA, Reshi ZA and Nawchoo IA: Impact assessment of anthropogenic threats to high-valued medicinal plants of Kashmir Himalaya, India. Journal for Nature Conservation 2019; 125715.
8. Negi VS, Pathak R, Sekar KC, Rawal RS, Bhatt ID, Nandi SK and Dhyani PP: Traditional knowledge and biodiversity conservation: a case study from Byans Valley in Kailash Sacred Landscape, India. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 2018; 61(10): 1722-43.
9. Bharathi S and Prasad AD: Diversity, population structure and regeneration status of arboreal species in the four sacred groves of Kushalnagar, Karnataka. Journal of Forestry Research 2017; 28(2): 357-70.
10. Singh H, Agnihotri P, Pande PC and Husain T: Biodiversity conservation through a traditional beliefs system in Indian Himalaya: a case study from Nakuleshwar sacred grove. The Environmentalist 2011; 31(3): 246.
11. Wagh VV and Jain AK: Inventory of ethnobotanicals and other systematic procedures for regional conservation of medicinal and sacred plants. Environment Systems and Decisions 2015; 35(1): 143-56.
12. WHO (World Health Organization): The World Medicines Situation 2011. Traditional Medicines: Global Situation, Issues and Challenges. WHO press, Geneva, Switzerland 2011;http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/policy/world_medicines_situation/WMS_ch18_wTraditionalMed.pdf.
13. Bisht S and Ghildiyal JC: Sacred groves for biodiversity conservation in Uttarakhand Himalaya. Current Science 2007; 92(6): 711-12.
14. Svendsen ES, Campbell LK and McMillen HL: Stories, shrines, and symbols: Recognizing psycho-social-spiritual benefits of urban parks and natural areas. Journal of Ethnobiology 2016; 36(4): 881-08.
15. Kowarik I, Buchholz S, von der Lippe M and Seitz B: Biodiversity functions of urban cemeteries: Evidence from one of the largest Jewish cemeteries in Europe. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 2016; 19: 68-78.
16. Aronson MF, Lepczyk CA, Evans KL, Goddard MA, Lerman SB, MacIvor JS and Vargo T: Biodiversity in the city: key challenges for urban green space management. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2017; 15(4): 189-96.
17. De Lacy P and Shackleton CM: Woody plant species richness, composition and structure in urban sacred sites, Grahamstown, South Africa. Urban Ecosystems 2017: 20(5): 1169-79.
18. Gopal D, von der Lippe M and Kowarik I: Sacred sites as habitats of culturally important plant species in an Indian megacity. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 2018; 32: 113-22.
19. Vidyarthi S, Samant SS and Sharma P: Traditional and indigenous uses of medicinal plants by local residents in Himachal Pradesh, North Western Himalaya, India. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management 2013; 9(3): 185-00.
20. Pandey A and Sharma GP: Mandu sacred grove in Upper Ganga Ramsar site, Uttar Pradesh. Current Science 2013; 104(4): 409.
21. Khumbongmayum AD, Khan ML and Tripathi RS: Sacred groves of Manipur, northeast India: biodiversity value, status and strategies for their conservation. Biodiversity & Conservation 2005; 14(7): 1541-82.
22. Heinrich M, Edwards S, Moerman DE and Leonti M: Ethnopharmacological field studies: a critical assessment of their conceptual basis and methods. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2009; 124(1): 1-17.
23. Gazzaneo LRS, De Lucena RFP and de Albuquerque UP: Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by local specialists in an region of Atlantic Forest in the state of Pernambuco (Northeastern Brazil). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2005; 1(1): 9.
24. Güneş S, Savran A, Paksoy MY, Koşar M and Çakılcıoğlu U: Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants in Karaisalı and its surrounding (Adana-Turkey). Journal of Herbal Medicine 2017; 8: 68-75.
25. Jan HA, Wali S, Ahmad L, Jan S, Ahmad N and Ullah N: Ethnomedicinal survey of medicinal plants of Chinglai valley, Buner district, Pakistan. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 2017; 13: 64-74.
26. Sureshkumar J, Silambarasan R and Ayyanar M: An ethnopharmacological analysis of medicinal plants used by the Adiyan community in Wayanad district of Kerala, India. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 2017; 12: 60-73.
27. Bose D, Roy JG, Mahapatra SD, Datta T, Mahapatra SD and Biswas H: Medicinal plants used by tribals in Jalpaiguri district, West Bengal, India. Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies 2015; 3: 15-21.
28. Laleye FOA, Mensah S, Assogbadjo AE and Ahissou H: Diversity, knowledge, and use of plants in traditional treatment of diabetes in the Republic of Benin. Ethnobotany Research and Applications 2015; 14: 231-57.
29. Tumoro G and Maryo M: Determination of informant consensus factor and fidelity level of ethnomedicinal plants used in Misha Woreda, Hadiya Zone, Southern Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 2016; 8(12): 351-64.
30. Biswakarma S, Pala NA, Shukla G and Chakravarty S: Ethnomedicinal plants used to cure stomach disorders in forest fringe communities in Northern part of West Bengal. Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources 2017; 8(4): 370-80.
31. Umair M, Altaf M, Bussmann RW and Abbasi AM: Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2019; 15(1): 7.
32. Alalwan TA, Alkhuzai JA, Jameel Z and Mandeel QA: Quantitative Ethnobotanical Study of some Medicinal Plants used by Herbalists in Bahrain. Journal of Herbal Medicine 2019; 100278.
33. Islam MK, Saha S, Mahmud I, Mohamad K, Awang K, Uddin SJ and Shilpi JA: An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by tribal and native people of Madhupur forest area, Bangladesh. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2014; 151(2): 921-30.
34. Ahmad M, Sultana S, Fazl-i-Hadi S, Ben Hadda T, Rashid S, Zafar M and Yaseen G: An Ethnobotanical study of Medicinal Plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (District Swat-Pakistan). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2014; 10(1): 36.
35. El-Amri J, El-Badaoui K, Touriya Z, Bouharb H, Chakir S and Tem A: Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in the region El-Hajeb (central Morocco). Journal of Research in Biology 2015; 4(8): 1568-80.
36. Nondo RS, Zofou D, Moshi MJ, Erasto P, Wanji S, Ngemenya MN and Masimba PJ: Ethnobotanical survey and in-vitro antiplasmodial activity of medicinal plants used to treat malaria in Kagera and Lindi regions, Tanzania. Journal of Medical Plants Research 2015; 9(6): 179-92.
37. Upadhya V, Hegde HV, Bhat S, Hurkadale PJ, Kholkute SD and Hegde GR: Ethnomedicinal plants used to treat bone fracture from North-Central Western Ghats of India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2012; 142(2): 557-62.
38. Rahman AHMM and Gulshana MIA: Taxonomy and medicinal uses on amaranthaceae family of Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences 2014; 2(2): 54-59.
39. Jain A, Katewa SS, Chaudhary BL and Galav P: Folk herbal medicines used in birth control and sexual diseases by tribals of southern Rajasthan, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2004; 90(1): 171-77.
40. Amjad MS, Qaeem MF, Ahmad I, Khan SU, Chaudhari SK, Malik NZ and Khan AM: Descriptive study of plant resources in the context of the ethnomedicinal relevance of indigenous flora: A case study from Toli Peer National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. PloS one 2017; 12(2): e0171896.
41. Dey A and De JN: Ethnobotanical survey of Purulia district, West Bengal, India for medicinal plants used against gastrointestinal disorders. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2012; 143(1): 68-80.
42. Bernard H: Research methods in anthropology: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Rowman & Littlefield, fourth edition 2017.
43. Patel SK, Verma P and Singh GS: Agricultural growth and land use land cover changein peri-urban India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2019; 191: 600.
44. Kumar M, Mukherjee N, Sharma GP and Raghubanshi AS: Land use patterns and urbanization in the holy city of Varanasi, India: a scenario. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2010; 167(1-4), 417-422.
45. Sharma GP, Kumar M and Raghubanshi AS: Urbanization and road-use determines Calotropisprocera distribution in the eastern Indo-Gangetic plain, India. Ambio 2010; 39(2): 194-97.
    

    ---

    How to cite this article:

    Patel SK, Sharma A, Tiwari AK and Singh GS: A study of ethnomedicinal plant diversity of sacred natural sites of Panchkoshi pilgrimage of Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh India. Int J Pharm Sci & Res 2020; 11(2): 710-20. doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.11(2).710-20.

    ---

    All © 2013 are reserved by the International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. This Journal licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.

    ---