A SYNERGISTIC APPROACH TO KINETIC AND MECHANISTIC STUDIES OF REGENERATION OF β-CAROTENE FROM TERT-BUTOXYL RADICAL INDUCED β-CAROTENE RADICAL CATION BY CHLOROGENIC ACID

Received on 20 October, 2013; received in revised form, 19 November, 2013; accepted, 13 February, 2014; published 01 March, 2014

A SYNERGISTIC APPROACH TO KINETIC AND MECHANISTIC STUDIES OF REGENERATION OF β-CAROTENE FROM TERT-BUTOXYL RADICAL INDUCED β-CAROTENE RADICAL CATION BY CHLOROGENIC ACID

G. Vijayalakshmi*¹, M. Adinarayana ² and P. Jayaprakash Rao ³

Department of Chemistry, Nizam College ¹, Basheerbagh, Osmania University, Hyderabad- 500 001, Andhra Pradesh, India

Department of Chemistry, Post-Graduate College of Science ², Saifabad, Osmania University, Hyderabad- 500 004, Andhra Pradesh, India

Department of Chemistry, University College of Science ³, Osmania University, Hyderabad- 500 007, Andhra Pradesh, India

ABSTRACT: The rates of oxidation of β-carotene and chlorogenic acid by tert-butoxyl radicals (t-BuO^·) were studied by measuring the absorbance of β-carotene at 491 nm and chlorogenic acid at 328 nm spectrophotometrically. Radicals (t-BuO^·) were generated by the photolysis of tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BuOOH) in presence of tert-butyl alcohol to scavenge OH^·radicals. The rates and the quantum yields (f) of oxidation of chlorogenic acid by t-BuO^· radicals were determined in the absence and presence of varying concentrations of β-carotene. An increase in the concentration of β-carotene was found to decrease the rate of oxidation of chlorogenic acid, suggesting that β-carotene and chlorogenic acid competed for t-BuO^· radicals. The quantum yields (f_expt) were calculated from the experimentally determined rates of oxidation of chlorogenic acid under different experimental conditions. Assuming that chlorogenic acid acts as a scavenger of t-BuO^· radicals only, the quantum yields (f_cal) were theoretically calculated. f_expt and f_cal values suggested that chlorogenic acid not only protected β-carotene from t-BuO^· radicals, but also regenerated β-carotene from β-carotene radical cation, formed by the reaction of β-carotene with t-BuO^·radicals. Results indicated a possible synergistic interaction between chlorogenic acid and β-carotene in which 35.4% of β-carotene was regenerated by chlorogenic acid.

Chlorogenic acid, β-carotene, regeneration, synergism, tert-butoxylradicals, oxidation

INTRODUCTION:In living aerobic cells, oxidative stress caused by an imbalance between antioxidant systems and the production of oxidants, including Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) is associated with many multifactorial diseases,

especially cancers, cardiovascular diseases and inflammatory disorders ^1-3. The mechanisms by which these pathologies develop generally involve oxidative alteration of physiologically critical molecules, including proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids, along with modulation of gene expression and the inflammatory response ^4-6.Oxidative DNA damage has been thought to be an important source of mutation leading to aging ⁷ and a wide range of degenerative diseases such as immune-system decline, brain dysfunction and cataracts ⁸.

Although lethal effects of the hydroxyl radicals on DNA and its constituents have been studied ⁴ extensively, relatively little is known about the biological effects of alkoxyl radicals and the key cellular targets for these species. Organic oxygen radicals, particularly alkoxyl radicals may participate in metabolic and pathological processes ⁹_. tert-Butyl hydroperoxide (t-BuOOH) has been chosen as a model peroxide which on homolysis gives ^·OH and t-BuO^·radicals.Previous studies on the reactivity of tert-butoxyl radicals suggest that these species might be expected to attack both the sugar and the base moieties of DNA ¹⁰. The experimental evidence indicates that base radicals also contribute to strand breaks by transfer of their radical sites from base moiety to sugar moiety.

Antioxidants are substances, when present in small quantities prevent or delay the oxidation of cellular organelles by minimizing the damaging effects of ROS/RNS or oxidative stress. Many studies have now confirmed that exogenic antioxidants, especially supplied by foods, are essential for counteracting oxidative stress ^11-13. These antioxidants mainly come from plants in the form of phenolic compounds (flavonoids, phenolic acids and alcohols, stilbenes, tocopherols, tocotrienols), ascorbic acid and carotenoids. They are required in the management of pathophysiological conditions, most of which involve free radical damage. The quest for natural antioxidants for dietary, cosmetic and pharmaceutical uses has become a major industrial and scientific research challenge over the last 20 years.

Synergism is the cooperative effect of antioxidants or an antioxidant with other compounds to produce enhanced activity than the sum of the activities of the individual component when used separately ¹⁴. In a combination of two or more free radical scavengers, rapid reaction with free radicals occurs because of the differences in bond dissociation energies (BDE) or steric hindrance of free radical scavenger ¹⁵. These differences result in one scavenger being used faster than the other and regenerate the primary scavenger by transferring its radical to another scavenger.

Antioxidants may act synergistically due to differences in reactivity towards different oxidants thereby yielding a better overall protection in combination than either could individually or may be due to direct interaction between them. Interaction among antioxidants can be synergistic, antagonistic or merely additive. Synergistic antioxidant effects can be achieved by the protective action of one antioxidant by means of its sacrificial oxidation ¹⁶. The less effective antioxidant traps alkyl or alkyl peroxy radicals in foods resulting in protecting more effective antioxidant from the oxidation.

Peyrat-Maillard et al ¹⁷ have studied the synergistic and antagonistic effects occurring between pairs of phenolic antioxidants in a mixture. A synergistic or antagonistic effects occurring between pairs of antioxidants during the oxidation of linoleic acid in an aqueous dispersed system can be partly explained by regeneration mechanisms, depending on the chemical structure of molecules and on the possible formation of stable intermolecular complexes ^{18, 19}.

Chlorogenic acid (CGA), an ester of caffeic acid with quinic acid, is found in a wide range of fruits and vegetables. Coffee, one of the most widely consumed beverages in the world, contains high amounts of CGA. Phenolcarboxylic acids such as CGA exert beneficial effects on human health through prevention of degenerative pathologies such as cardiovascular diseases and cancer ^{20, 21}. It was found that CGA inhibited NO production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated mouse macrophage like cells (RAW 264.7 cells) and scavenged various radicals such as superoxide anions and hydroxyl radicals.  It scavenges radicals generated in the aqueous phase ²², increases the resistance of LDL to lipid peroxidation ²³ and inhibits DNA damage ²⁴. In vivo, when added to the diet, it inhibits chemically induced carcinogenesis of the large intestine, liver and tongue in rats and hamsters ^{25, 26}.

Antioxidants such as chlorogenic acid do not act in isolation, but rather constitute an intricate network in the presence of coantioxidants such as glutathione (GSH), ascorbate or other phenolic compounds such as vitamin E ²¹. There remains a great interest in the possible health promoting effects of antioxidants, but the synergistic mechanism by which these compounds coexist in foods is in need of further study.

The regeneration effect of one antioxidant by another antioxidant is a potentially beneficial reaction that needs to be further studied in human and animal models. It is in this context that a systematic kinetic study of interaction of CGA with β-carotene in the presence of t-BuO^·radicals was carried out to get an insight into the possible synergistic/antagonistic molecular mechanisms which help in selection of co-antioxidants while adding to the food preservatives.

MATERIALS AND METHODS: CGA and β-carotene were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, USA and used as received. All solutions were prepared afresh using double-distilled water. tert-Butyl hydroperoxide (t-BuOOH) was used as received from Merck-Schuchardt of Germany. There is no contamination of other peroxides in the assay of the sample. t-BuOOH was estimated by iodometric method ²⁷.

The irradiations were carried out at room temperature in a quantum yield reactor model QYR-20 supplied by Photophysics, England, attached with 400 W medium pressure mercury lamps. The quartz cuvette containing the sample was irradiated and the irradiations were interrupted at definite intervals of time and the absorbance was noted. The light intensity corresponding to the irradiating wavelength (254 nm) was measured using peroxydisulphate chemical actinometry ²⁸. On photolysis, t-BuOOH was activated at 254 nm to generate ^·OH and t-BuO^· radicals by homolytic cleavage of –O-O-bond ²⁹. The ^·OH radicals produced were scavenged using sufficient concentration of t-BuOH ³⁰. In a typical kinetic run, the aqueous reaction mixture of CGA and t-BuOOH was taken in a specially designed 1 cm path length quartz cuvette, suitable for both irradiations and absorbance measurements. The absorbance measurements were made at the l_max of CGA (328 nm) on a Chemito UV-Visible spectrophotometer (model 2100).

The photochemical reaction of CGA in the presence of t-BuOOH was followed by measuring the absorbance of chlorogenic acid at 328 nm at which β-carotene was totally transparent.

It is known that t-BuOOH is activated to radical reaction by the absorption of light at 254 nm ²⁸.

However, the substrates used in the present work, viz., chlorogenic acid and β-carotene have strong absorption in this region. But, in the absence of t-BuOOH in the reaction mixture, chlorogenic acid, β-carotene or chlorogenic acid-β-carotene mixture did not undergo any observable chemical change on shining the light. Even though a small fraction of the total light intensity was absorbed by t-BuOOH directly in the presence of β-carotene and/or chlorogenic acid, a considerable chemical change was observed with β-carotene as well as chlorogenic acid.

If β-carotene and chlorogenic acid acted as only inner filters, the rates of the reaction of β-carotene or chlorogenic acid with t-BuO^· radicals would have been decreased with increase in concentration of β-carotene or chlorogenic acid. But, the results in Tables 1 and 2 were contrary to this. One another fact against the inner filter concept was that the rate of oxidation of chlorogenic acid in the presence of β-carotene would have been much less than the experimentally observed values (Table 4). Hence, we proposed that the excited states of chlorogenic acid and β-carotene acted as sensitizers to transfer energy to t-BuOOH to produce radical species. This type of sensitizing effect was proposed in similar systems earlier ²⁸. Therefore, the light intensity at 254 nm was used to calculate the quantum yields of oxidation of β-carotene as well as chlorogenic acid under different experimental conditions.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS: The oxidation of β-carotene by t-BuO^· radicals was carried out by irradiating the reaction mixture containing known concentrations of β-carotene and t-BuOOH in the presence of sufficient amount of t-BuOH to scavenge the ^·OH radicals completely²⁸.The reaction was followed by measuring the absorbance of β-carotene at 451 nm (l_max of β-carotene) with time. The initial rates and quantum yields of oxidation of β-carotene by t-BuO^· are presented in Table 1. UV-visible absorption spectra of β-carotene in presence of t-BuOOH and t-BuOH at different irradiation times were recorded (Fig. 1). The initial rates of photooxidation of chlorogenic acid by t-BuOOH in presence of t-BuOH were calculated from the plots of absorbance of chlorogenic acid at 328 nm vs time using microcal origin computer program on a personal computer (Table 2). UV-visible absorption spectra of chlorogenic acid in presence of t-BuOOH and t-BuOH at different irradiation times were recorded (Fig. 2). In order to find the protection offered to β-carotene by chlorogenic acid towards oxidation by t-BuO^·, the reaction mixture containing known concentrations of β-carotene and t-BuOOH was irradiated in presence of varying concentrations of chlorogenic acid. The photooxidation of chlorogenic acid by t-BuO^· at different concentrations of β-carotene was also studied (Fig. 3) and the data are presented in Table 3. The reactions were followed by measuring the absorbance of chlorogenic acid at 328 nm (Fig. 4) at which β-carotene was transparent and the rate data are presented in Table 4.

The oxidation rate of β-carotene in the presence of t-BuOH refers exclusively to the reaction of t-BuO^·with β-carotene. These rates were found to increase with increase in concentration of β-carotene as well as t-BuOOH. The quantum yield values were also increased with increase in [β-carotene] as well as [t-BuOOH] (Table 1).

The rate of oxidation of chlorogenic acid increased with increase in concentration of chlorogenic acid (Table 2). The quantum yields of oxidation of chlorogenic acid were calculated from the initial rates and the light intensity at 254 nm. These values were also increased with increase in concentration of chlorogenic acid (Table 2). Having known the rates of t-BuO^·

TABLE 1: EFFECT OF [β-CAROTENE] ON THE RATES AND QUANTUM YIELDS OF PHOTO OXIDATION OF β-CAROTENE BY t-BuOOH IN t-BuOH-WATER (4:1 v/v) MEDIUM

Light intensity = 2.7168 × 10¹⁵ quanta s^-1_, l_max = 294 nm, pH ~ 7.5, Temperature = 298 K

TABLE 2: EFFECT OF [CHLOROGENIC ACID] AND [t-BuOOH] ON THE RATES AND QUANTUM YIELDS OF PHOTO OXIDATION OF CHLOROGENIC ACID BY t-BuOOH IN t-BuOH-WATER (4:1 v/v) MEDIUM

Light intensity = 2.7168 × 10¹⁵ quanta s^-1_, l_max = 328 nm, pH ~ 7.5, Temperature = 298 K

Radical reactions with β-carotene as well as chlorogenic acid under varying experimental conditions, both β-carotene and chlorogenic acid were introduced for the competitive studies with t-BuO^· radical. Aqueous solutions of reaction mixture containing chlorogenic acid, and t-BuOOH were irradiated in presence of varying concentrations of β-carotene (Fig. 3). The initial rates and quantum yields of oxidation of chlorogenic acid by t-BuO^· radicals were found to decrease with increase in concentration of β-carotene (Table 4). Comparison of the initial rates and quantum yields of oxidation of chlorogenic acid in presence and absence of β-carotene clearly indicated that the initial rates and quantum yields of oxidation of chlorogenic acid were substantially decreased in presence of β-carotene (Table 4).

These observations clearly demonstrated that β-carotene and chlorogenic acid was in competition for t-BuO^· radicals.

The rate constant of the reaction of t-BuO^·with CGA has been reported³¹ to be 3.20 ´ 10⁹ dm³ mol^-1 s^-1 under similar experimental conditions of the present work. The rate constant for the reaction of t-BuO^· with β-carotene was calculated by the adenosine competition method, which was very similar to the method³² used to determine the rate constant for the reaction of ^·OH radicals with polyhydric alcohols in competition with KSCN. In the present study, solutions containing chlorogenic acid and varying amounts of β-carotene in presence of t-BuOOH was irradiated for 2 min and the decrease in absorbance of chlorogenic acid was measured.

The decrease in absorbance of chlorogenic acid reflected the amount of t-BuO^· radicals that had reacted with chlorogenic acid. From the known rate constant of the reaction of CGA with t-BuO^· radical under similar experimental conditions of the present work (k_CGA = 3.20 ´ 10⁹ dm³ mol^-1   s^-1), the rate constant of t-BuO^· radical reaction with β-carotene (k _β-carotene) can be calculated using the following equation:

FIG. 1: ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF PHOTO-OXIDATION OF β-CAROTENE IN THE PRESENCE OF TERT-BUTYL HYDROPEROXIDE AT DIFFERENT IRRADIATION TIMES. [β-carotene] = 5 ´ 10^-5 mol   dm^-3, [t-BuOOH] = 5 ´ 10^-3 mol dm^-3, Light intensity = 2.7168 ´ 10¹⁵ quanta s^-1, l_max = 451 nm, pH ~ 7.5, temperature = 298K, [t-BuOH] =   1.0 M

FIG. 2: ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF PHOTO-OXIDATION OF CGA IN THE PRESENCE OF TERT-BUTYL  HYDROPEROXIDE AT DIFFERENT IRRADIATION TIMES IN; t-BuOH-water (4:1 v/v) medium, [chlorogenic acid] = 10.0 ´ 10^-6 mol   dm^-3, [t-BuOOH] = 5 ´ 10^-3 mol dm^-3, Light  intensity = 2.7168 ´ 10¹⁵ quanta s^-1, l_max = 328 nm, pH ~ 7.5, temperature = 298 K

In Eq. (1), [Absorbance of chlorogenic acid]_o and  [Absorbance of chlorogenic acid]_β-carotene are the absorbance values of chlorogenic acid in the absence and presence of β-carotene, respectively at the same interval of time. Experiments of this kind can be carried out with great accuracy. Using Eq. (1), the rate constant for the reaction of t-BuO^· radical with β-carotene (k_β-carotene) was calculated at different concentrations of chlorogenic acid and β-carotene and the average of these was found to be 5.54 ´ 10⁸ dm³ mol^-1 s^-1 which is found to be same as earlier reported³³. As chlorogenic acid had strong absorption at 294 nm, it is not possible for the direct determination of protection and repair offered to β-carotene by chlorogenic acid. However, one could calculate indirectly the extent of protection offered to β-carotene by chlorogenic acid from competition kinetic studies measured at 328 nm, l_max of chlorogenic acid. The method was as follows:

FIG. 3: ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF PHOTO-OXIDATION OF CHLOROGENIC ACID IN THE PRESENCE OF TERT-BUTYL HYDROPEROXIDE AND β-CAROTENE AT DIFFERENT IRRADIATION TIMES; [chlorogenic acid] = 2 ´ 10^-5 mol dm^-3, [t-BuOOH] = 5 ´10^-3 mol dm^-3, [β-carotene] = 5 ´ 10^-5 mol dm^-3, Light Intensity = 2.7168 ´ 10¹⁵ quanta s^-1,  l_max = 328 nm, pH ~ 7.5, temperature = 298 K

FIG. 4: EFFECT OF [β-carotene] ON THE OXIDATION OF CHLOROGENIC ACID BY t-BuO^· IN t-BuOH-WATER 4:1 (v/v) NEUTRAL MEDIUM

When the system containing β-carotene, chlorogenic acid and t-BuOOH was irradiated, the probability of t-BuO^· radicals reacting with chlorogenic acid {p_(t-BuO^·_{+ chlorogenic acid)} }was calculated using the following equation:

If chlorogenic acid scavenged only t-BuO^· radicals and did not give rise to any other reaction (e.g. reaction with β-carotene radicals), the quantum yield of oxidation of chlorogenic acid (f_cal) at each concentration of β-carotene may be given by equation:

Where f^o_expt is the quantum yield of oxidation of chlorogenic acid in the absence of β-carotene, and p is the probability given by Eq. (2).

TABLE 3: EFFECT OF [CHLOROGENIC ACID] ON THE RATES AND QUANTUM YIELDS OF OXIDATION OF CHLOROGENIC ACID IN THE ABSENCE AND PRESENCE OF β-CAROTENE BY t-BuO^· IN t-BuOH-WATER (1:4 v/v) MEDIUM

[t-BuOOH] = 5.0 ´ 10^-3 mol dm^-3, Light intensity = 2.7168 ´ 10¹⁵ quanta s^-1_, l_max = 328 nm, pH ~ 7.5, Temperature = 298 K

The calculated quantum yield (f_cal) values at different β-carotene concentrations are presented in Table 4. The data showed that the f_cal values were lower than the experimentally measured quantum yield (f_expt) values. This indicated that more number of chlorogenic acid molecules was consumed in the system than expected and the most likely route for this was H atom donation by chlorogenic acid to β-carotene radicals. In Table 4, are presented the fraction of t-BuO^· radicals scavenged by chlorogenic acid at different concentrations of β-carotene. These values referred to the measure of protection offered to β-carotene due to scavenging of t-BuO^· radicals by chlorogenic acid. Using the f_exptl values, a set of values, viz., f¢ values were calculated from Eq. (4) and are presented in Table 4.

Where f¢s represent the experimentally found quantum yieldvalues if no scavenging of β-carotene radicals by chlorogenic acid occurs.  In the absence of any “repair” of β-carotene radicals by chlorogenic acid, the f¢values should all be equal to f^o_expt.

The observed increase in f¢ with increasing β-carotene concentration (Table 4) clearly indicated the repair of β-carotene radicals. The extent of repair may be quantified by the following equation:

The data on percentage repair is presented in Table 4. The experimentally determined quantum yield (f_expt) values were higher than the quantum yield (f_cal) values calculated using Eq. (3) under the assumption that chlorogenic acid acts only as a t-BuO^·radical scavenger. This showed that chlorogenic acid acted not only as an efficient scavenger of t-BuO^· radicals, but also as an agent for the repair of β-carotene radicals.

The nature of interactions of CGA with other antioxidants is essential for understanding the effects of this compound in oxidative stress conditions in vivo. Whether a synergistic or antagonistic effect is observed for the mixtures derived from radical oxidation may depend on the chemical structure of the molecules, Bond Dissociation Energy (BDE), redox potentials, microenvironment of the reaction and the possible formation of stable intermolecular complexes.

TABLE 4: EFFECT OF VARYING [β-CAROTENE] ON THE RATE AND QUANTUM YIELD OF PHOTOOXIDATION OF CHLOROGENIC ACID IN THE PRESENCE OF t-BuOOH IN t-BuOH-WATER (4:1 v/v) MEDIUM

[chlorogenic acid] = 2.0 ´ 10^-5 mol dm^-3, [t-BuOOH] = 5.0 ´ 10^-3 mol dm^-3, Light intensity = 2.7168 ´ 10¹⁵ quanta s^-1_, l_max = 328 nm, pH ~ 7.5, Temperature = 298 K

In general, regeneration between antioxidants occurs when BDE of an antioxidant is lower, or at least similar to that of other antioxidants ^{34, 35}. The BDE of CGA (~80.0 kcal/mol) is higher than that of β-carotene (74.0 kcal/mol) for the removal of weaker hydrogen in the molecule. CGA has more BDE hence its regeneration is unlikely by β-carotene. However, β-carotene which has less BDE might be regenerated by CGA.

CGA has redox potential of 0.54 V vs SCE is lower compared to that of β-carotene (1.06V). The BDE of the OH bond of phenolics along with redox potentials control the regeneration of antioxidants. The CGA molecule with higher OH Bond Dissociation Energy and a redox potential of 0.54 V is capable of regenerating β-carotene as evident from the data in Table 4.

CGA regenerates β-carotene (β-CAR) by reducing the β-carotene radical cation (β-CAR^+·) as shown in the equation below;

The proposed mechanism for the reaction between CGA and β-carotene may involve the reduction of β-carotene radical by CGA at the LDL surface with concomitant production of CGA o-semiquinone (phenoxyl radical).

On the basis of the experimental results and the above discussion, the scheme for the synergistic interaction of β-carotene with CGA and regeneration of β-carotene from β-carotene radical as a representative by CGA is given as follows:

Comparison of the results for the photooxidation of CGA in the absence and presence of β-carotene suggested that CGA acts as a synergist and β-carotene acts as a primary antioxidant. Stable intermolecular complexes could be formed between β-carotene and CGA as shown above which is similar to anthocyanin and CA or rutin in the co-pigmentation mechanism ^{36, 18}. These interactions could be due to π-π stacking between the aromatic ring of phenolic acid and β-carotene by hydrogen-bonding effects that would help in stabilizes the complex ¹⁹. A higher stability of the complex formed between CGA with β-carotene due to better structural analogy and additional bonding between the two molecules, could explain 35.4% of β-carotene regeneration by CGA.

POSSIBLE INTERACTIONS OCCURRING IN β-CAROTENE / CGA COMPLEX

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: Authors thank Head, Department of Chemistry, Osmania University, Hyderabad, for providing facilities to carry out the research work.

REFERENCES:

1. Halliwell B and Gutteridge J M: In Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine third edition, Oxford University Press, Midsomer Norton, Avon, England, 1999.
2. Chandra M, Chandra N, Agarwal R, Kumar A, Ghatak A and Pandey V C: The Free radical System in Ischemic heart Disease. International Journal of Cardiology (USA) 1993; 43:121-125.
3. Halliwell B and Aruoma OI: DNA Damage by Oxygen-Derived Species. Its Mechanism and Measurement in Mammalian Systems. FEBS Letters 1991; 281:9-19.
4. Von Sonntag C: The Chemical Basis of Radiation Biology, Taylor & Francis, London, 1987
5. Hartley JA, Gibson NW, Kilkenny A and Yuspa SH: Analysis of the rasH oncogene and its p21 product in chemically induced skin tumors and tumor-derived cell lines. Carcinogenesis 1987; 8:1821-1825.
6. Swanger JE, Dolar P, Zweier JL, Kuppusamy P and Kensler TW: Role of the benzoyloxyl radical in DNA damage mediated by benzoyl peroxide. Chemical Research in Toxicology 1991; 4:223-228.
7. Herman D: The aging process. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 1981; 78(11):7124-7128.
8. Halliwell B and Gutteridge JMC: Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine, 2^nd edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989.
9. Hutchinson F: Chemical changes induced in DNA by ionizing radiation. Progress in Nucleic Acid Research in Molecular Biology 1985;32:115-154.
10. Erben-Russ M, Michel C, Bors W and Saran M: Absolute rate constants of alkoxyl radical reactions in aqueous solution. Journal of Physical Chemistry 1987; 91(1):2362-2365.
11. Shahidi F and Wanasundara PKJPD: Phenolic antioxidants. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 1992; 32:67-103.
12. Harbone JB and Williams CA: Advances in flavonoid research since 1992. Phytochemistry 2000; 55 (6):481-504.
13. Ferrari CKB and Torres EAFS: Biochemical pharmacology of functional foods and prevention of chronic diseases of aging. Biomedical Pharmacotherapy 2003; 57:251-260.
14. Nawar WW: in Fennema O ed., Food Chemistry, 2^nd ed., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1986, p. 139
15. Nawar WM: in Fennema O, ed., Food Chemistry, 3^rd edition., Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1996, p. 225.
16. Decker EA: Antioxidant Mechanisms, In: Aloh C C, Min D B, editors. Food Lipids, 2^nd  Edition, New York: Marcel Dekker Inc., 2002; p.512-542.
17. Peyrat-Maillard MN, Cuvelier ME and Berset C: Antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds in 2,2’-azobis (2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH) induced oxidation: Synergistic and antagonistic effects. Journal of American Oil Chemical Society 2003; 80 (10):1007-1012.
18. Maccarone E, Maccarone A and Rapisarda P: Stabilization of anthocyanins of blood orange fruit juice. Journal of Food Science 1985;50:901-905.
19. Jung DM, de Ropp JS and Ebeler SE: Study of interactions between food phenolics and aromatics using one and two-dimensional 1H NMR spectroscopy. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 2000; 48(2):407-412.
20. Bendini A, Cerretani L, Carrasco-Pancorbo A, Gomez-Caravaca AM, Segura-Carretero A, Fernandez-Gutierrez A and Lercker G: Phenolic molecules in virgin olive oils: a survey of their sensory properties, health effects, antioxidant activity and analytical methods.   Molecules 2007;12(8):1679-1719.
21. Jiang RW, Lau KM, Hon PM, Mak TCW, Woo KS and Fung KP: Chemistry and biological activities of caffeic acid derivatives from Salvia miltiorrhiza. Current Medicinal Chemistry 2005; 12(2): 237-246.
22. Lafay S, Gil-Izquierdo A, Manach C, Morand C, Besson C and Scalbert A:Chlorogenic Acid Is Absorbed in Its Intact Form in the Stomach of Rats. Journal of Nutrition 2006; 136: 1192-1197.
23. Foley S, Navaratnam S, McGarvey DY, Land EJ, Truscotti G and Rice-Evans CA, Singlet oxygen quenching and the redox properties of hydroxycinnamic acids. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine 1999; 26:1202-1208.
24. Nardini M, D’Aquino M, Tomassi G, Gentili V, Di Felice M and Scaccini C: Inhibition of human low-density lipoprotein oxidation by caffeic acid and other hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine 1995; 19:541-552.
25. Shibata H, Sakamoto Y, Oka M and Kono Y: Natural antioxidant, chlorogenic acid, protects against DNA breakage caused by monochloramine. Bioscience Biotechnology Biochemistry 1999; 63:1295-1297.
26. Tsuchi T, Suzuki O and Igarashi K: Protective effects of chlorogenic acid on paraquat-induced oxidative stress in rats. Bioscience Biotechnology Biochemistry 1996; 60:765-770.
27. Howard J A and Ingold K U: Absolute Rate Constants for Hydrocarbon Autooxidation V. The hydroperoxy radical in chain propagation and termination. Canadian Journal of Chemistry 1967; 45:785-793.
28. Kumar M Ravi, & Adinarayana M: Oxidation of caffeine by phosphate radical anion in aqueous solution under anoxic conditions. Proceedings of Indian Academy of Sciences 2000; 112:551-557.
29. Bors W, Michel C and Saran M: Inhibition of the bleaching of the carotenoid crocin. A rapid test for quantifying antioxidant activity. Biochemical Biophysica Acta 1984; 796:312-319.
30. Asmus KD, Mockel H and Henglein A: Journal of Physical Chemistry 1973; 77:1218-1221.
31. Vijayalakshmi G, Adinarayana M and Jayaprakash Rao P: Kinetics of oxidation of adenosine by tert-butoxyl radicals: Protection and repair by Chlorogenic acid. Indian Journal of Biophysics and Biochemistry 2009; 46:389-394.
32. Akhalaq MS, Al-Baghdad S and Von Sonntag C: On the attack of hydroxyl radicals on polyhydric alcohols and sugars and the reduction of the so-formed radicals by 1,4-dithiothreitol. Carbohydrate Research 1987; 164:71-83.
33. Vijayalakshmi G, Adinarayana M and Jayaprakash Rao P: Kinetics and mechanism of regeneration of β-carotene from tert-butoxyl radical induced β-carotene radical cation by α-tocopherol: A synergistic interaction. Journal of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Research 2012; 4 (7):3574-3582.
34. Amorati R, Ferroni F, Lucarini M, Pedulli GF and Valgimigli L: A quantitative approach to the recycling of alpha-tocopherol by coantioxidants.  Journal of Organic Chemistry 2000; 67: 9295-9303.
35. Jovanovic SV, Hara Y, Steenken S and Simic MG, Reduction potentials of flavonoid and model phenoxyl radicals. Which ring in flavonoids is responsible for antioxidant activity?Journal of Chemical Society, Perkins Transactions 2 1996; 2497-2504.
36. Peyrat-Maillard MN, Cuvelier ME and Berset: Antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds in AAPH-induced oxidation: synergisticand antagonistic effects. Journal of American Oil Chemical Society 2003; 80:1007-1012.
    

    ---

    How to cite this article:

    Vijayalakshmi G, Adinarayana M and Rao PJ: A synergistic approach to kinetic and mechanistic studies of regeneration of β-carotene from tert-butoxyl radical induced β-carotene radical cation by chlorogenic acid. Int J Pharm Sci Res 2014; 5(3): 942-50.doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.5(3).942-50

    ---

    All © 2013 are reserved by International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. This Journal licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.

    ---