DIVERSITY ROLES OF X-RAY IN CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE – AN OVERVIEW

DIVERSITY ROLES OF X-RAY IN CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE - AN OVERVIEW

Vardhineedi Shirisha, M. Poojitha, R. Gayathri, P. Mounika, M. Bheemaji and R. Parasuraman *

Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pullareddy Institute of Pharmacy, Hydarabad, Telangana, India.

ABSTRACT: The multifaceted applications of X-ray instrumentation across industrial, medical, forensic, and security domains. In industrial settings, X-ray instrumentation serves as a cornerstone for non-destructive testing, ensuring product quality and streamlining manufacturing processes. In the medical field, these instruments play a pivotal role in diagnostic imaging, offering crucial insights for effective healthcare interventions. Forensic applications benefit from the detailed analysis provided by X-ray instrumentation, aiding in evidence examination and crime investigation. Additionally, X-ray technology strengthens security measures by facilitating swift and accurate detection of potential threats in baggage and parcels. The continuous evolution of X-ray instrumentation promises ongoing innovations, shaping advancements in industrial processes, medical diagnostics, forensic investigations, and security protocols. Contributing to various branches of science and technology, as technology advances the versatility of X-rays continues to expand, making them an invaluable tool across the fields. The abstract highlights the transformative impact of X-ray instrumentation across diverse sectors, emphasizing its historical significance and continued relevance in modern society.

Keywords: X-rays, Instrumentation, Components, Absorption, Fluorescence, Emission, Diffraction, Applications, Advanced techniques

INTRODUCTION: The energy that the alpha, beta, and gamma rays release during radioactive decay is transferred to the atoms, molecules, or ions that they impact with causing them to lose vitality while moving through. The temperature of material that is exposed to these collisions may rise because they are elastic in the sense that only kinetic energy [K.E] is transferred.  Eventually, the elevated K.E of the target particles is converted into heat and released into the environment ¹.

Radiation and matter often combine to produce inelastic collisions that increase the potential energy of the target species. An electron that has been stimulated to a high energy level is a common type. Light, either visible, ultraviolet, or x-ray, is the electromagnetic radiation that is emitted when the electron returns to its ground state. A sample having more than 0.1.g of radium will emit a bright glow that is easily visible in the dark and can even be observed during the day.

An electron is taken out from an atom or molecule by a different kind of inelastic collision, creating a positively charged ion. Radioactivity research devices employ the ionizing properties of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. At energies utilized in radiation chemistry, protons, deuterons, alpha particles, and heavier charged particles decelerate upon collision with a substance. This is mostly because of the substance's atomic electrons interacting with it. This action leads to the excitation of the medium's molecules and ionization of the atoms ².

Higher energy electrons lose energy due to inelastic scattering on atomic nuclei and electrons in a medium, which causes atoms and molecules to ionize and produces bremsstrahlung emission. There is no energy lost as a result of the elastic electron scattering on the medium's electron. X-rays and gamma rays lose energy through photoelectric absorption, also known as the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pairing production, which is the creation of a positron-electron pair.

x-rays are electromagnetic radiation type, they lie in amid gamma rays and ultra violet rays in range of 0.1 A – 10 A. Wilhelm Rontgen discovered that the invisible radiations are produced due to bombardment of cathode rays on the walls of discharge tube, as a passage of high electric voltage through it, by which a fluorescent glow produced on the screen as the invisible rays produced from crooks tube (vacuumed air, positive and negative electrodes, glass bulb) ³.

X-ray diffraction (XRD) is used for the primary characterization of material properties like crystal structure, crystallite size, and strain. The use of XRD in pharmaceutical research is extensively increasing due to its wide application. X-ray diffraction (XRD) is an important and widely used material characterization technique. With the recent development in material science technology and understanding, various new materials are being developed, which requires upgrading the existing analytical techniques such that emerging intricate problems can be solved. Although XRD is a well-established non-destructive technique, it still requires further improvements in its characterization capabilities, especially when dealing with complex mineral structures ⁴.

Te nature of fluid solid interactions is a subject that evolved considerably in its scope in both geology and material science. A crucial subset of the subject is the analysis of dynamics and structure of water, or other fluids, in confined systems. Characterizing the behaviour of water confined in such materials is crucial to advance the understanding of macroscopic phenomena, i.e. ion exchange/ mobility, ultra filtration, adsorption, and in turn serves as a guideline for specifically molecular engineered purposes. Understanding changes in material properties through external stimuli plays a key role in validating the expected performance of materials and engineering material properties in a controlled manner. Fundamental protocol Introduced to deduce the dehydration reactions kinetics of water confined in nanopore channels, with the cyclosilicate beryl as the scaffold of interest, using time-resolved synchrotron X-ray diffraction (SXRD) ⁵.

X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns for samples of nanoparticles having different sizes and shapes can look different, and careful analysis of the XRD data can provide useful information and also help correlate microscopic observations with the bulk sample ⁶.

Femtosecond X-ray and electron diffraction techniques based on the detection of a few Bragg spots can provide some information on structural dynamics, but whole electron density (ED) maps that visualize atomic positions in three dimensions cannot be constructed from such a limited number of Bragg spots. Time-resolved serial femtosecond crystallography (TR-SFX) is a promising tool for overcoming such limitations in studies of ultrafast structural dynamics ^7-10.

X-ray spectroscopy approaches like transmission zone plate-, reflection zone plate-, and grating-based emission spectroscopy techniques. Combined with tunable incident X-ray energies yields complementary information about changing (inverse) X-ray absorption features of the perovskites, to deduce element- and oxidation-state-specific chemical monitoring of the catalyst. Adding liquid jet technology, monitored the element- and oxidation-state-specific interactions of the catalyst with water adsorbate during oxygen evolution reaction (OER) ¹¹.

For preventing the spread of the covid virus. X-ray imaging is a low-cost, easily accessible, and fast method that can be an excellent alternative for conventional diagnostic methods such as RT-PCR and CT scans ¹². A two-stage deep residual learning technique using lung X-ray images to identify COVID-19- induced pneumonia and the model shows good performance in differentiating COVID-19 patients and patients with COVID-19-induced pneumonia ¹³.

With the advancement of generative models, image captioning has made significant progress, enabling accurate generation of text descriptions based on images. This capability has been effectively applied in the medical domain, particularly in Radiology Report Generation (RRG) ^14-15. Radiology Report Generation (RRG) aims to produce textual descriptions of medical images, such as X-rays, for alleviating the burden on radiologists and enhancing the quality and standardization of healthcare ¹⁶.

The enhanced X-ray Timing and Polarimetry mission (eXTP) is a flagship observatory for X-ray timing, spectroscopy and polarimetrye XTP will investigate three fundamental science areas: the equation of state of ultra-dense matter, the effects of strong-field gravity, the astrophysics and physics of very strong magnetic fields. eXTP will, in addition, be a powerful X-ray observatory. The mission will continuously monitor the X-ray sky, characterizing the active X-ray Universe on a large range of time scales, and will enable multi-wavelength and multi-messenger studies for gravitational waves and neutrinos sources ¹⁷.

X-ray Lasers are showing a potential also for biomedical diagnostics. X-ray imaging of human brain tissue, highlighting a perspective application for X-ray laser to fully access the molecular level ¹⁸. Hard X-ray micro computed tomography can be used for three dimensional histological phenols typing of zebra fish embryos down to 1micrometer or below without the need for staining or physical slicing ¹⁹. The deposition of sodium in the heart muscle, which has a remarkable impact on the function impairment. They used X-ray absorption and fluorescence microscopy as direct inspection techniques. Such direct measurements represent a milestone to prove the accumulation of sodium in the intercellular spaces ²⁰. Medical image analysis is an important technique that augments the decision-making of radiologists on patients based on image modalities.

This survey illuminates the current state-of-the-art deep learning-based algorithms for the automatic detection of tuberculosis from chest radiographs ²¹.

Generation of X-rays: When matter is exposed to high energy electrons or x-ray photons, X-rays are generated. The speed of high energy electrons is slowed down by many interactions with target electrons. The energy lost is transformed into an x-ray continuum known as "Bremsstrahlung," or "breaking radiation ²²." When the energy is high enough, it can knockout an electron from the target atom. A photon of x-radiation is then emitted when another electron returns to the vacancy. The wavelength of this photon depends on the energy levels and the properties of the element ²³.

X - ray Spectroscopy: An approach to analysing how x-rays interact with a material is x-ray spectroscopy. It involves the measurement of intensity of x-rays and energy of absorbed emitted, scattered, light. This method employs the information about properties of materials and their elemental composition. The different techniques that are widely used in x-spectroscopy are of x-ray absorption method x-ray fluorescence, x-ray diffraction method, x-ray emission ²⁴.

Instrumentation: The measurement of electromagnetic radiation's emission, absorption, scattering, fluorescence, and diffraction forms the basis of x-ray spectroscopy theory ²⁵. The qualitative and quantitative determination of elements can often be performed through the use of x-ray fluorescence and absorption techniques.

Components of X- Rays Spectroscopy ²⁶:

1. X- ray generating (x ray tube)
2. Collimator
3. Monochromators
4. Detector

X-ray Tube: An x-ray tube is a vacuum tube that produces x-rays by accelerating the release of electrons from a heated cathode to a high velocity using high voltage energy. When the anode's metal target is struck by high-velocity electrons, x-rays are produced.

Collimator: It is a device to narrow the beam of waves in a specific direction.

Monochromator: An x-ray beam that is restricted in its wavelength is used. The radiation limited band width i.e monochromatic radiation can be obtained by using filters and monochromators an in the case if visible region.

Detectors:

1. Solid state detectors
2. Scintillation detector
3. Gas filled detector

X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy: X-ray absorption technique broadly used for determining the geometric or electronic structure of the atom/molecule of these electrons/material/matter. Matter absorbs x-rays, with the degree of absorption determined by the amount of absorbent substance ²⁷. XAS relies on the principle that when x-rays interact with atoms they can be absorbed by inner shell electrons, leading to excitation to higher energy level x-ray absorption edge corresponds transition of inner electron. Due to its compliance with x-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES), it suggests a fine structure that is symmetric to the absorbing atom and sensitive to oxidation near the absorption edge. Extended absorption fine structure (EXAFS) implies local atomic structure.

Components of X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy:

1. Production of x- rays
2. Collimator
3. Monochromator
4. Detector

For analysis, the absorption part is discarded by parallel plate collimator.

In absorption technique, a secondary emitter is injected which has strong spectral lines in both sides of absorption edge.

In case of polychromatic absorptiometry, the secondary emitter is replaced by the x-ray tube and it is directly passed through a sample to detector.

Two types of principles are there in absorption:

Photoelectric X-ray Absorption: All energy of the incident quantum derived into kinetic energy of photoelectrons results in feature of x rays.

Scattering of X-ray Absorption: The scattering causes the incident x-ray to decrease ²⁸.

X-ray Absorption Methods:

Absorption Methods:

1. Polychromatic
2. Monochromatic
3. Differential adsorption across an adsorption edge

FIG. 1: INSTRUMENTATION OF X-RAY ABSORPTION SPECTROMETER (XAS)

X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy: The irradiation of the x-ray beam from the x-ray tube can be used to excite the sample. The sample's constituent components become excited and release their own distinctive x-ray fluorescence. The process is known as the "x-ray emission method" or "x-ray fluorescence ²⁹.

It is a powerful tool for rapid quantitative determination of all the highest elements and also for semi quantitative and quantitative analysis more often non-destructive elemental analysis ³⁰. For measuring the energy and intensity of emitted characteristic x-ray radiation, there are two possible set ups.

FIG. 2:  INSTRUMENTATION OF FLUORESCENCE SPECTROMETER (XFS)

FIG. 3: X-RAY FLUORESCENCE (XFR)

X-ray Fluorescence Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy: The field of energy dispersive spectroscopyit posses a detector sort out the energy of photons moreover it fast measurement time and low cost.

Fluorescence Spectroscopy Leveraging X-ray Wavelength Dispersive Analysis: In wavelength dispersive analysis uses a crystal to which wavelength radiation actually enters the detector ³¹.

X-ray Emission: One of the most useful tool an analyst has for identifying and measuring elements in the presence of one another and in any matrix is the fluorescence emission of x-rays ³². Modern methods frequently surpass the use of x-ray emission in the qualitative and quantitative identification of constituents in a vast array of naturally occurring and manufactured services ³³.

FIG. 4: X- RAY EMISSION

X-ray Diffraction Spectroscopy: A potent non-destructive method for analysing crystalline materials, x-ray diffraction offers precise details about the chemical makeup, physical characteristics and crystallographic structure of materials ³⁴. Max van Laue 1912 suggested that x-rays might be diffraction while passing through a crystal where it functions as a grating for diffraction in three dimensions and produce interference effect. The only viable physical process is x-ray diffraction for determination of electron distribution in the molecule, every bond length, bond angle, and molecule configuration ³⁵. X-ray diffraction is the only analytical method that is capable of providing quantitative and qualitative information of materials ³⁶.

FIG. 5:  X-RAY DIFFRACTION

X-ray Production: X- rays photons are produced by the displacement of electrons in atoms , electron distracts different energy levels in orbitals around an atomic nucleus when an electron falls to lower orbital it need to be release some energy ³⁷, it releases the extra energy  and the energy level depends on the distance of electron dropped between orbitals.

Characteristics of X-rays: An important property of x-rays is their high permeability, even though it is a solid substance.

The rays coming out of different vacuum tubes are different in nature, the greater the vacuum, the greater the penetrating power of the voltage used to release through the tube. When the vacuum increases, the tube becomes harder and the tube emits very penetrating, hard x-rays, if the tube is not so high, then according to the absorption factor, the vacuum gives less penetrating, soft x-rays. The quality of x-ray image is determined quantitatively ³⁸.

Detection and Measurement Of X-rays: The detection of the relative intensity of x-rays is determined by 3 different cases.

1. Darkening of a photographic film or film.
2. The measurement of ion currents produced by the emission of gas is detected.
3. By measuring of the visible radiation produced when the beam is allowed to strike a suitable phosphor ³⁹.

X-ray Applications in Fluorescence:

Applications of Inorganic Chemistry:

• The measurement of ruthenium
• Vanadium testing
• The boron steel determination
• Calculating aluminium content in alloys
• Manganese and chromium
• Quantification of uranium salts
• Estimation of terbium from rare earth
• Determination of beryllium from silicates
• Estimation of 3-4 benzopyrene

Applications in Organic and Biological Field:

• Determination of thiamine (Vitamin B 1)
• Measuring riboflavin, or vitamin B2.
• Quantification of tetracycline in blood

Pharmaceutical Research and Protein X-ray Crystallography: The utilization of broad structural information by medicinal chemists to advance exploring leads or potential medications hasbeen made possible by the introduction of the architectural biology in the process of finding new drugs. In this regard, as evidenced by its usefulness, x-ray crystallography method due to its ability to provide incredibly details about the structure that governs how a ligand and a medicinal target interact. In the same way that fragment-based drug discovery has gained popularity recently x-ray crystallography has grown to be an effective evaluating method that can offer structural details on complexes including low-molecular-weight drugs even when their binding affinities are weak. It is now possible to create fragment libraries since they require fewer compounds than drug-like compound libraries, which typically contain hundreds of thousands. Additionally, the pharmaceutical sector uses drug polymorphism and pseudo polymorphism these days for medication characterization.

This technique helps understand molecular interactions, aiding in drugs design and development. By analysing protein structures at the atomic levels, research can identify potential drug targets and design more effective pharmaceuticals.

FIG. 6: X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

Applications in Special Fluorimetry:

1. Investigation of chemical structure and processes
2. Chemical analysis

• Detection of impurity
• Estimation of single component - vitamin A

3. Estimation of fluorescence intensity

Other Applications in X-ray:

1. Gold nanoparticles contrast agents in advanced x-ray imaging technologies.
2. A non-destructive method with a broad variety of applications in several geological fields, X-ray computed tomography (CT) offers information on the interior structure of material as indicated by variations in atomic arrangement and density ⁴⁰.
3. X-ray in diamond nanoparticles powders.
4. X-ray Pulsar used in relative navigation between two spacecraft.
5. Medical application in synchrotron radiation x-ray.
6. Charge density analysis using x-rays in chemical applications.

X-ray Techniques in Various Fields:

3-D Laser Scanner: To Capture Transient Evidence at Crime Scenes and Post Mortemanalysis ⁴¹: For the purposes of downstream analysis, interpretation, and court presentation, appropriate recording of tangible evidence at crime scenes and during postmortem Inspection is necessary. Ephemeral or transient evidence is hard or impossible to gather and maintain in its original physical form, soit presents unique obstacles to investigators. It is suggested that such evidence be recorded and photographed using a portable, three-dimensional (3-D) laser scanner ⁴², both during the autopsy and in the field. Compared to more conventional methods of documentation like casting or photography, the scanner has the advantage of measuring in all dimensions, reconstructing missing pieces, and generating visuals that are easy for the jury to understand during a trial. Possible situations where using the scanner is necessary. X-rays commonly used in postmortem examination to realize internal structures of the body and identify injuries or abnormalities. During a post-mortem x-rays, the deceased persons body is exposed to x-ray beams and the resulting images help forensic pathogenesis examine bones and soft tissues. These x-rays can reveal fractures, foreign objects, gunshot wounds and other internal details that may not be apparent during a traditional external examination. Post-mortem x-rays contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the cause of death and aid in forensic investigation.

FIG. 7:  POST MORTEM EXAMINATION

The Process of X-ray post-mortem Examination Involves Several Steps:

Preparation: The deceased body is prepared for examination, including proper positioning to obtain optimal x-ray images. This may involve repositioning limbs or using supports to ensure clear visualization.

X-ray Imaging: X-ray equipment is used to generate images of the body internal structures. Different views and angles may be captured to thoroughly examine specific areas of interest.

Radiographic film or Digital Imaging: The x-ray images can be captured or traditional radiographic film or using digital imaging system. Digital methods offer immediate results and easy storage for analysis.

Analysis: Forensic pathologists and radiologists analyse the x-ray image to identify fractures, foreign objects, injuries or any pathological conditions. This information in determining the cause of death and contributing factors.

Documentation: Finding from the x-ray examination and documentation in post-mortem report, contributing to comprehensive better understanding of circumstances surrounding death.

Integration with other Forensic Evidences:  X- ray results are often integrated with finding from external examination, toxicology tests and other forensic analyses to build a through and accurate forensic profile.

X-ray Device: Local Spatial Attribute Extraction Model for Images in Airports: Since, the events of September 11, 2001, the airport's aviation security has had to deal with progressively more serious problems. Improving the picture recognition skills of airport x-ray machine screeners is crucial. In order to stop terrorists from checking or carrying deadly items on their luggage. However, the luggage is typically arranged differently, additionally there are notable variations in the volume and density of the items. Hazardous articles thus display a range of x-ray image characteristics. It's simple for detectors to overlook or misidentify harmful material. There has been an unnoticed risk to the security of commercial aviation. The researcher used a local semantic features extraction method to improve picture identification by analysing the visual semantics of photos depicting unsafe commodities. Airport x-ray machine to create an image of the contents of the luggage, employ modest quantities of ionizing radiation. Bags pass through machine on conveyor belt, and x-rays penetrate through the materials, revealing the contents. The system highlights organic materials, like explosives, which appear differently from other items. Security personnel then analyse the images to ensure passenger safety while respecting privacy ⁴³.

FIG. 8: AIRPORT SECURITY CHECKING SYSTEM

FIG. 9: AIRPORT SCANNER IMAGE

Hard X-ray Multilayers for X-ray: Compared to single-layer coatings, whose effectiveness depends on total external reflection, multi-layer coatings effectively reflect x-rays at a significantly greater angle. This is achieved by optical interference. Multilayer coatings consist of optically different material layers arranged in order for each interface to have tiny reflections and in phase across different photon energies and angles. A periodic multilayer film is a film stack consisting of several identical bilayers that are repeated and usually of different thicknesses. As Bragg's law explains the conditions for x-rays in a crystal to interfere constructively, it also shows the conditions for beneficial interference in a multilayer film that occurs periodically (although it does so in layers with small but significant refractive corrections, which we ignore for simplicity): where θ is tilt angle, λ is photon wavelength, and n is the Bragg order.

N λ = 2 d sin θ

Displays the estimated and measured reflectance of a periodic W/Si multilayer film at tilt angles between θ = 0.5° and θ = 0.1°, consisting of N = 100 copies in a bilayer with a thickness of 4.2 nm. Such a film reflects x-rays rather constrained energy range at a certain angle of incidence ⁴⁴. Hard x-ray multipliers are specialized structures composed of alternating thin layers of two materials with different electron densities. These structures are designed to enhance range of 10KeV and above. By carefully choosing the materials and layer thicknesses, these multilayers can selectively reflect x-rays at specific angle and wavelength.

This technology is commonly used in x-ray optics, as in x-ray telescopes and synchrotron beam lines, where efficient focusing of hard x-rays is crucial for various scientific and medical applications. The multilayers design allows for improved performance in terms of reflectivity and resolution compared to traditional single layer coatings.

FIG. 10:  HARD X-RAY MULTILAYER

Hard X-Ray Operation: Hard x-ray multilayers work grounded in the idea of constructive interference. When x-rays strikes multilayer structures, they undergo multiple reflections at the interfaces between the layers. If the thickness of each layer and choice of materials are carefully controlled, the reflected x-rays from different interfaces can combine constructively, reinforcing each other.

Higher-Tech Facility for X-Ray Astrophysics (AXAF): The purpose of x-ray observatory AXAF is to research x-ray radiation of different kinds of galaxies, including quakes and regular stars. AXAF displays extensive scientific goals and exceptional ability to produce high resolution (< l – arcsec) pictures. High resolution dispersive spectroscopy and spectrometric imaging across the energy spectrum width of 0.1 to 10-keV. AXAF is scheduled to launch at the end of 1998. The observatory's primary components, the scientific equipment and optics, are almost finished and ready for calibrated. Under NASA's Marshall Space Flight Program, the AXAF Project is managed with support from the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in terms of science and technology. The Space and Electronics Group of TRW, the prime contractor is responsible for providing comprehensive engineering and integration of systems.

The subsequent significant subcontracts have a direct impact on optics: The x-ray optics were constructed by Hughes Danbury Optical Systems; the optical bench and installation and alignment of the optics are provided by Eastman Kodak Company; and optics were coated with sputtered iridium by Optical Coating Laboratory. An aspect camera for CCD visible-light imaging is one of other optical devices aboard AXAF. It records images of stars and provides information on the Observatory's direction. This aspect camera system is a project of Ball Aerospace & Technologies. Two sets of focal-plane imaging detectors and two sets of objective transmission gratings, which can be mounted directly behind the x-ray lenses, make up the research apparatus ⁴⁵.

FIG. 11:  AXAF OBSERVATORY

3-D Nano-X-Ray Scanning: 3D imaging x-ray microscopy allows reliable scanning while adjusting the x-ray incidence angle, a sample is passed through a beam. Laser interferometry is used to control the sample's position with regard to the optics for beam defining. The device's position stability is better than a standard deviation of 10 nm ⁴⁶. The instrument's performance is assessed using 18 nm resolution in 2D imaging of a lithographic test pattern and scanning x-ray diffraction microscopy with a 3μm diameter pinhole serving as the beam's definition. A test object of a microprocessor's copper interconnects is obtained with a 3D resolution of 53 nm.

FIG. 12: 3D MICROSTRUCTURE DESIGN OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY ELECTRODES ASSISTED BY X-RAY NANO-COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY AND MODELLING

X-Rays in Space Navigation and Communication for the Future ⁴⁷: The utility of x-rays in space communications can be achieved by celestial bodies whose emission is in x-ray band, x-ray diffraction, and x-ray penetration. The factors driving the change and the work being done at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Centre (GSFC) to clear the way. The Station Explorer mission, which aims to launch in spring 2013, is at the centre of this recent technical endeavour. It is part of the x-ray Timing and Navigation technical (SEXTANT) / BETTER project. In order to demonstrate x-ray Pulsar Navigation (XNAV) and x-ray Communications [XCOM] for the first time in orbit, it seeks to send a potent x-ray timing device to the International Space Station (ISS).

X-ray sources are naturally occurring astronomical objects that emit brilliant radiation, one example of such a source is a black hole, which is formed when stars eventually collapse due to gravity.

FIG. 13: PULSAR NAVIGATION SATELLITE

Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer (Apxs) On-Boarding Chandgrayan-2:

[Rover-Pragyan]: The Pragyan rover on Chandrayaan-2 is dedicated towards two scientific experiments, one of which is the Alpha Particle x-ray Spectrometer (APXS). Determining constituent composition of lunar surface in immediate region of landing site is main scientific goal of APXS. This will be accomplished by utilizing the x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy technique with an in-situ excitation source 244 cm that emits alpha particles in addition to x-rays. These radiations cause particle-induced x-ray emission (PIXE) and x-ray fluorescence (XRF), which in turn stimulate the characteristic x-rays of the elements. The "state-of-the-art" Silicon Drift Detector (SDD), which offers excellent energy resolution and great efficiency in the energy range of 1 to 25ke v, detects the distinctive x-rays. As a result, APXS is able to identify all of the main elements that make rocks, including Na, Mg, Al, Si, ca, Ti, and Fe. The APXS payload's Flight Model (FM) has been finished and tested for a number of instrument settings. When operating at a detector temperature of around -35°C, the APXS gives an energy resolution of approximately 135ke v at 5.9ke v ⁴⁸.

FIG. 14:  APXS-CHANDHRAYAN-2

FIG. 15: ALPHA PARTICLE X-RAY SPECTROMETER

Scientific Odontology Enhances with Advanced Technologies: Identification of people who cannot be recognized visually or by other means is greatly aided by forensic dentistry. Modern technology has made forensic specialists' investigations much quicker and more precise. "That branch of forensic medicine which in the interest of justice deals with the proper handling and examination of dental evidence and with the proper evaluation and presentation of the dental findings" is how Keiser-Neilson described forensic dentistry, also known as forensic orthodontia, in 1970. Relatively new field called forensic dentistry makes use of a dentist's expertise to support the legal system. Dentists with forensic science qualifications provide expert testimony in matters involving bite mark analysis, craniofacial trauma, human identity, and malpractice. The accuracy of dental records is crucial for human identification. In cases when dental records are unavailable, forensic odontologistcan ultimately helps with the investigation by profiling victims using characteristics of their teeth and other oral structures ⁴⁹.

Hence, the significance of forensic odontology lies in its application in various circumstances such as-

1. Identification of found human remains
2. Identification in mass fatalities
3. Identification of victims of air and industrial accidents
4. Identification in natural disasters
5. Identification in terrorist attacks
6. Assessment of bite mark injuries
7. Assessment of cases of abuse (Child, spousal, elderly) & domestic violence
8. Civil cases involving malpractice
9. Identification by age and gender
10. Identification in cases of human stamped

Advanced Technologies In Forensic Odontology:

1. Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) and X-ray
2. Fluorescence spectrometer (XRF)
3. Portable Dental X-ray Generator
4. Digital Photography
5. Digital Radiography
6. Cone Beamed Computed Tomography (CBCT)
7. Computer Assisted Dental Identification Software(CAPMI)
8. DVI System International
9. WinID3

FIG. 16: FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY

FIG. 17:  DENTAL RECORD

Advanced X-Ray Tomographic Methods for Quantitative Characterisation of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers: The aerospace industry has shown a sharp increase in demand in recent years for lightweight materials such as carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP), driven by concerns about the environment and the economy. The use of CFRP composites is primarily motivated by its excellent fatigue resistance and ability to reduce weight. The goal of the future generation of aircraft, like the Airbus A350 XWB, is to have over 50% composite material. On the other hand, as composite share rises, non-destructive testing initiatives are growing. As of right now, one extremely promising technique for fully three-dimensional, non-destructive characterizations of composite aeronautic components is x-ray computed tomography, or CT. Using a series of radiographs, CT creates a volumetric map of a specimen that includes both internal and external 3D components. CFRP part characterization using skilled X-ray computed tomography and data analysis techniques ⁵⁰.

FIG. 18: CARBON FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER BY FAST SYNCHROTRON X-RAY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY

Applications in Food and Agriculture: There has been a lot of study done on x-ray imaging for food inspection. Furthermore, x-rays have been used in investigations to describe the characteristics of plants and soil. Image segmentation is hampered by low contrast because of similarities between an object's backdrop and attenuation characteristics ⁵¹. Accuracy in picture segmentation and classification has increased with the development of local adaptive techniques. Advances in hardware have led to the creation of x-ray inspection systems suitable for commercial use. Future advancements in image processing algorithms, x-ray generating and detection technologies, and global concerns about food safety point to more prospects for x-ray inspection in the food sector ⁵².

FIG. 19: X-RAY IN FOOD

FIG. 20: X-RAY IN AGRICULTURE PRODUCT FOR QUALITY (MAIZE GRAIN)

FIG. 21: X-RAY IMAGES OF SOIL-ROOT SYSTEM

Particle Induced X-Ray Emission (Pixe) Technique is used For Elemental Analysis of Agricultural Soil Samples: Particle-induced x-ray emission (PIXE) technology for determining the essential nutrient content of soil samples was established. Samples with intermediate thickness, where the mass per unit area is less than 1μg/cm2, are subjected to the PIXE technique ⁵³. After multiple measurements of a single reference material CRM PACS-2, or estuary sediment whose matrix was relatively comparable to the soil samples being analysed, the method's precision and accuracy were calculated. The findings of elemental measurements in soil sample are presented in this study ⁵⁴.

FIG. 22: PARTICLE INDUCED X-RAY EMISSION

CONCLUSION: Contributing to various branches of science and technology, as technology advances the versatility of x-rays continues to expand, making them an invaluable tool across medicine, industry, research, environmental monitoring and space exploration and with applications ranging from analysing soil composition to observing celestial objects in medical field diagnostic imaging, offering unparalleled insight into the human body, in forensic applications and emerges as a powerful tool for detailed analysis, aiding in the investigation and examination of evidence. The legacy of X-ray instrumentation lies not only in its historical significance but also in its ongoing transformative impact on crucial aspects of modern society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: We are expressing our sincere thanks to the management of pullareddy institute of pharmacy for their continuous support and encouragement to complete the review article.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST: No conflict of interest.

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    Shirisha V, Poojitha M, Gayathri R, Mounika P, Bheemaji M and Parasuraman R: Diversity roles of X-ray in contemporary science - an overview. Int J Pharm Sci & Res 2024; 15(12): 3379-96. doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.15(12).3379-96.

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