HEAVY METAL CONTENTS AND ASSOCIATED HEALTH RISK OF SOME GHANAIAN AND ASIAN HERBAL DRUGS
HTML Full TextHEAVY METAL CONTENTS AND ASSOCIATED HEALTH RISK OF SOME GHANAIAN AND ASIAN HERBAL DRUGS
Kofi Sarpong, Emmanuel Agyapong Asare *, Emmanuel Dartey, Emmanuel Effah-Yeboah and Gadafi Iddrisu Balali
Department of Chemistry Education, College of Agriculture Education, Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training and Entrepreneurial Development, Mampong-Ashanti, Ghana.
ABSTRACT: This study looked at heavy metal levels in selected registered herbal drugs of Asian and unregistered Ghanaian herbal drugs sold in Kumasi. It examined the health risks of the metals. It provided authorities with data to ensure that herbal drugs are strictly monitored and their metal levels evaluated to safeguard patrons' health. Dry ashing method was used on 10g of each of the herbal drug samples. Ashes were digested at 95 ºC with 70% HNO3 and 70% HClO4 (2:5v/v), and then metals were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). The Asian drugs recorded 27.42E-01 mg/kg (Fe), 28.17E-0 4 mg/kg (Pb), 27.43E-0 4 mg/kg, 12.06E-06E-0 2 mg/kg (As) and 79.72E-0 2 mg/kg (Cu) whilst the Ghanaian drugs recorded mean levels of 15.43E-01 mg/kg (Fe), 24.99E-02 mg/kg (Pb), 16.04E-03 mg/kg, 47.70E-0 4 mg/kg (AS) and 12.37E-0 4 mg/kg. Metal levels in drugs were below WHO and Pharmacopeia (China) permitted levels. HI and HQ were below 1, indicating that risk linked to the metals were acceptable.
Keywords: Heavy metals, Herbal drugs, Health risk, Hazard index, Hazard quotient, Standard error of measurement, Standard reference material
INTRODUCTION: Globally, approximately 80% of the population depend on herbal remedies to treat and manage diseases such as diabetes, stroke, and hypertension, among others 1. Herbal drugs play a vital role in the healthcare delivery schemes of numerous countries and are either self-prescribed or recommended by herbal practitioners 2. For instance, in some Asian countries (China, Japan and India), herbal remedies have cooperated into healthcare schemes 3. In Ghana, herbal remedies are also vital in the healthcare schemes for treating and managing ailments and conditions such as malaria, numbness, hypertension, ulcers, infertility, and sexual weakness, among others 1.
Currently, Ghana is overwhelmed with varieties of herbal drugs and other plant products of varied therapeutic values, and most Ghanaians depend on herbal medicines for their healthcare need. However, herbal drugs could have intrinsic health risks as various studies have documented metal poisoning in individuals using herbal remedies 4. Other studies 5 have also reported Lead (Pb), Cadmium 6, 7, and Arsenic (As) at levels dangerous to humans and the environment. More studies 8 have similarly seen Pb, Hg, and As poisoning in patrons of herbal remedies. Investigations conducted on different herbal drugs showed elevated levels of Pb, Hg, and As 9, 10 sufficient to prompt injurious health issues. Lead levels (3290 µg/L and 795 µg/L) respectively have been found in blood samples of diabetic patients who experienced severe abdominal pains after consuming some herbal drugs 11, 12. Chinese and Indian registered herbal remedies are being sold on the Ghanaian markets.
These herbal remedies treat diabetes, stomach ache, hypertension, prostate cancer, stomach ulcer, piles, sexual weakness, and infertility problems, among others. However, Chinese and Indian herbal drugs have been found to have caused lead, arsenic, and mercury poisonings in a substantial number of global patrons 13, 15. Food and Drugs Authority, Ghana, is instructed by law to scrutinize and test drugs (herbal or orthodox) for safety and efficacy prior to public use. However, not all herbal drugs are scrutinized and tested due to ingress via unapproved routes and local productions in remote areas. Thus, the population may be at risk from contaminants (mainly elevated heavy metal levels) that may exist in the herbal drugs via absorption and storage in plant tissues 13, 15.
Upon ingesting the herbal drugs, these stored heavy metals are transferred to patrons 16. Heavy metals are extensively investigated 17 and damage or affect the kidneys, endocrine glands, lungs, liver, hearts, skin, and the brain 18. Heavy metals also damage the normal functioning of the nervous systems 19, cause hearing and speech difficulties 20, lack of coordination 17, memory loss, unusual heart rhythm 21, stunted growth, learning disabilities 22, cancers 23 and even death 24. Heavy metals levels above maximum permissible limits have been detected in herbal drugs globally 25. These metals are harmful and could be detrimental to the health of consumers 26. Based on the severity of health effects associated with heavy metals and the fact that huge portions of herbal drugs in Ghana do not undergo safety checks before consumption, it is prudent to investigate the herbal drugs to safeguard human health and preserve lives. The main aim of the present study was to provide data on the levels of Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu in some registered herbal drugs of Chinese and Indian origin on the Ghanaian market and some unregistered Ghanaian herbal drugs. A further attempt was made to assess the health risk associated with consuming these herbal drugs. Furthermore, the study seeks to furnish authorities with data and the need to implement stringent examination and testing regimes to ensure that the health of patrons of herbal drugs is protected.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
Description of Study Area: Kumasi is the second-largest city in Ghana 27. Kumasi has an estimated population of 2,069, 350 28. Geographically, Kumasi is located at latitude 6.350-6.400N and longitude 1.30-1.350W 29. It is approximately 254 km from Accra. Kumasi is located in the forest-savannah zone at an altitude of 250 m. The metropolis shares boundaries with Kwabre East to the north, Atwima District to the west, Ejisu-Juaben Municipal to the east, and Bosomtwe to the south. Kumasi is a cosmopolitan city and is the center of the Ashanti region 28. Commercial activities in the area are varied and include but are not limited to the sale of farm produce herbal remedies, and jewelries. Kumasi receives traders from Cote d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Togo 28.
Sample Collection: Selected registered Chinese and Indian herbal drugs samples and unregistered Ghanaian herbal drugs samples were purchased into plastic zipper bags from different locations within the Kumasi metropolitan area. The zipper bags were firmly sealed and properly labelled. The registered Chinese and Indian herbal drugs samples were labelled CHI and IND, respectively whilst the unregistered Ghanaian herbal drugs samples were GHA. Samples were transported in brown paper bags to the laboratory for metal extraction and analysis.
Sample Treatment and Metal Analysis: The dry ashing method 30 was adopted and used in this study. A 10 g of each herbal drug was put into 20 g capacity porcelain crucibles, and 20 mL of 2M aqueous solution of magnesium nitrate was added. The magnesium nitrate (Merck, Germany) treated samples were put into a muffled oven and heated at 450 ºC until samples were completely ashed. The ashes were dissolved in 20 mL of 70 % HNO3 and 70% HClO4 (BDH, UK) (2:5v/v) mixture in 200 mL digestion tubes and boiled gently at 95 ºC until dense white fumes appeared. Twenty milliliters of de-ionized water were added to the boiled ashes and continuously stirred for 5 minutes. The mixtures were filtered under gravity through Whatman No.1 filter paper. Filtrates were made to 50 mL with de-ionized water and analyzed in triplicates with Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (VARIAN SPECTRA AA220).
Spike Sample Preparation: To determine the efficiency of metal extraction method employed, 20% of the samples were subjected to quality control analysis. A 10 g sample of each herbal drug was spiked with 0.1g of an apple leaves standard reference material (NIST®SRM 1515) (Sigma-Aldrich) to prepare the quality control samples. The powdered apple leaves SRM had Fe (8.3 ± 5.00 mg/kg), Pb (0.47± 0.024 mg/kg), Cd (0.013 ± 0.002 mg/kg), as (0.038 ± 0.007mg/kg) and Cu (5.64 ± 0.24 mg/kg). Spiked samples were prepared at the time drug samples were being prepared. Spiked samples were treated, digested, and analyzed exactly as described for herbal drug samples. Percentage recoveries of the metals were calculated using equation (1).
% Recovery = (Spiked result - Unspiked result)/ (Amount of metal added) × 100 (1)
Blank Samples Preparation: Blank samples were prepared to check cross-contamination of drug samples by chemicals/reagents and/or glassware used. To prepare the blank samples, 20 mL each of 2M aqueous magnesium nitrate solution was put into five different 20 g capacity porcelain crucibles. The crucibles and contents were put into the muffled oven and heated at 450 ºC until solutions were dried. Reconstitution of solutions was with 20 mL of 70% HNO3 and 70% HClO4 mixture (2:5v/v). The reconstituted solutions were put into five different 200 mL digestion tubes and boiled gently at 95 ºC until dense white fumes appeared. After digestion, 20 mL of de-ionized water was added to each digestion tube, shaken vigorously for 5 minutes, and filtered under gravity through Whatman No.41 filter paper. Filtrate volumes were made to 50 mL with de-ionized water and then analyzed exactly as done for herbal drug samples.
Human Health Risk Estimation: The health risk of Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu in the herbal drugs were assessed using the expected daily intake (EDI) of the metals, Hazard Index (HI), and Hazard Quotient (HQ) as employed elsewhere 31, 32. The EDI of Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu were calculated to assess expected average quantities of each metal that patrons are likely to be exposed to daily. The EDIs were calculated using equation (2) as used in analogous studies 33.
EDI = (Cmetal * IR) / BW, (2)
Where C metal (mg/kg) is the average concentration of heavy metals in the herbal drugs, IR is the ingestion rate of the herbal drug, EDI is the expected daily intake of the metal for an adult (gram/day/person), and BW is the average body weight of an adult (kg) as used in an analogous 34. The ingestion rate of Chinese herbal drugs (CHI-01, CHI-02, CHI-03, CHI-05, CHI-08, CHI-09, and CHI-10) is 20 g (dry weight)/day whilst that of (CHI-04 and CHI-06) is 10 g (dry weight)/day. The ingestion rate of Indian herbal drugs (IND-10, IND-02, IND-03, IND-06, and IND-08) is 20 g (dry weight) /day whilst that of (IND-01 IND-04, IND-05, IND-07, and IND-09) is 10g (dry weight) /day. Ghanaian herbal drugs (GHA-01, GHA-02, GHA-03, GHA-05, GHA-06, GHA-07, GHA-08, GHA-09 and GHA-10) have ingestion rate of 10 g (dry weight) /day whilst that of (GHA-04) is 20 g (dry weight) /day. Sixty-five kilograms (65 kg) were employed as the average body weight of an adult consumer of the herbal drugs used in analogous studies 35, 37.
Hazard Quotient (HQ) Estimation: The likelihood of non-carcinogenic illnesses emerging among patrons of the herbal drugs was investigated via hazard quotient (HQ). Hazard quotient (HQ) was calculated via equation (3) as used in analogous studies 38, 39. Hazard quotient (HQ) less than 1 as interpreted in comparable studies indicates that likely occurrence of non-cancerous diseases amongst patrons of the herbal drugs from long-term usage of the drugs investigated is non-existence. Hazard quotient (HQ) greater than 1 as established in analogous studies 39 is indicative of the likelihood of patrons to surfer non-cancerous illnesses from long-term usage of the herbal drugs. Hazard quotients (HQs) were calculated as the ratio of EDI (mg/kg/day) to reference dose (RfD) (mg/kg/day) of metals using equation (3) as used in analogous studies elsewhere 32, 39. The reference dose (RfD) 9.0E-03 mg/kg/day (Fe), 3.5E-03 mg/kg/day (Pb), 1.0E-03 mg/kg/day 6 and 3.0E-03 mg/kg/day (As) and 1.20E-02 mg/kg/day (Cu) were used in equation (3) to estimate HQ data of each metal in each herbal drug.
HQ = EDI/RfD, (3)
Health Indices (HIs) Estimation: To assess contribution of Fe, Pb, Cd, As and Cu to the non-cancerous illnesses that could emerge from ingesting the herbal drugs, health indices (HIs) were estimated as summation of hazard quotient (HQ) connected to each metal as done in similar studies 40 using equation 4. The health indices were estimated to reflect the additive effect of the manifold heavy metals in the herbal drugs as presented in analogous studies 31, 32. The HI data as interpreted in similar studies 41 shows an unacceptable risk level at values equal to or greater than 1. The risk level is considered acceptable at HI less than 1as described in various studies 31, 32.
HI=Σ (HQFe + HQPb + HQCd + HQAs + HQCu), (4)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Quality control processes included blank sample analysis, triplicate herbal drug samples analysis, and metals recovery assessment. Data generated were analyzed by Microsoft Excel 2016. Levels of Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu achieved in the recovery assessment were expressed as mean ± standard error of measurement (Mean ± SE) (mg/kg/dry weight of sample) and presented in Table 1. Dry ashing method 30 used to extract Fe, Pb, Cd, As and Cu from the herbal drugs was very efficient (95% CL). Percentage recoveries ranged from 93.92% (Cu) to 99.26 % (Pb). The dry ashing method was also accurate and precise as exhibited by lesser uncertainty between 2.99E-03 (mg/kg) [6] to 39.20E-03 (mg/kg) (Cu) and insignificant error margin between 1.0E-03 (mg/kg) [6] to 1.0E-02 (mg/kg) (Fe and Pb) Table 1.
TABLE 1: ASSESSMENT OF EFFICIENCY OF HEAVY METAL EXTRACTION METHOD
Metal | Certified Value (mg/kg) | Recovered
Value (mg/kg) |
Recovery
(%) |
Expanded Uncertainty (mg/kg) |
Fe | 8.3 ± 5.00 | 8.18 ± 1.0E-02 | 98.74 | 22.63E-03 |
Pb | 0.47± 0.024 | 0.45 ± 1.0E-02 | 99.26 | 27.46E-03 |
Cd | 0.013 ± 0.002 | 0.011 ± 1.0E-03 | 96.82 | 2.99E-03 |
As | 0.038 ± 0.007 | 0.036 ± 2.0E-03 | 95.77 | 3.92E-03 |
Cu | 5.64 ± 0.24 | 5.29 ± 2.0E-03 | 93.92 | 39.20E-03 |
Metal Levels in Herbal Drugs: Iron 42, Lead (Pb), Cadmium [6], Arsenic (As) and Copper 43 levels in registered herbal drugs of Chinese (CHI) and Indian (IND) origin and unregistered ones of Ghanaian (GHA) origin were investigated for likelihood to exert unwanted ailments on persons relying on them for their healthcare need. The herbal drugs were used to treat and manage health illnesses such as waist pain, chest pain, diabetes, and sexual weakness. Data generated from AAS analysis of the herbal drug samples were statistically treated (95% CL) using Microsoft Excel 2016. Iron 42, 44, Pb, Cd, As and 43 levels calculated were also reported as Mean ± SD (mg/kg/dry weight of sample) and presented in Tables 2, 3 and 4. Iron 42, 44, Pb, Cd, As, and 43 levels in the herbal drugs were compared with WHO and Pharmacopeia (China) permitted levels of the metals as done in comparable study 42, 44.
The concentration of Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu in registered Chinese herbal drugs sold in Ghana Mean levels of metals in Chinese herbal drugs (registered) ranged from 12.06E-02 (As) to 27.42 E-01 mg/kg (Fe). Although Fe levels were high (14.78 E-02 to 47.56 E-0 1 mg/kg) in all drugs, levels were below WHO and pharmacopeia (China) permitted limits Table 2 and appeared not to exert damaging effect(s) on the gastrointestinal system. In addition, Fe levels appeared insufficient to cause vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach ache linked to Fe toxicity. Iron 42, 44 in herbal drugs is non-heme Fe, and its bioavailability is approximately 5 to 12%. Hence, persons using the Chinese drugs would have roughly 13.71E-03 (5% of mean levels of Fe) to 32.90 E-0 3 mg/kg (12% of mean levels of Fe) of Fe absorption into their system. Thus, iron accumulation in organs of the body and its’ subsequent damage to the liver and or brain is eliminated. Copper 43 levels in 70% of drugs (CHI-01) for liver purification, Kidney purification (CHI-02), rheumatism (CHI-03), malaria (CHI-04 and CHI-09), sexual weakness (CHI-05), diabetes (CHI-06) were below WHO, and Pharmacopeia (China) permitted levels Table 2. Low Cu levels in CHI-01, CHI-02, CHI-03, CHI-04, CHI-05, CHI-06 and CHI-09 show that health problems linked to Cu toxicity may not occur in patrons of the drugs as Cu levels were far below WHO and Pharmacopeia (China) allowable limit. The remaining 30 % of drugs for gout (CHI-07), arthritis (CHI-08), and migraine (CHI-10) had Cu levels above WHO and Pharmacopeia (China) allowable limit and ranged between 25.70E-01 to 61.70 E-0 1 mg/kg Table 2. Hence, as seen in similar studies, frequent intake of CHI-07, CHI-08, and CHI-10 could cause liver and kidney damage. Thus, patrons prone to diseases such as Wilson’s disease might show signs of the illness as high Cu contents in CHI-07, CHI-08 and CHI-10 could encouragement Cu build-up in the liver when Cu homeostasis is hugely impaired. Lead (Pb), Cd, and As levels in the Chinese drugs (registered) were below WHO and pharmacopoiea (China) permitted limits Table 2. Although the Chinese drugs appear not to have inherent negative health conditions linked to Pb, Cd, and As, their existence in the drugs is worrying as Pb, Cd, and As could progressively bioamplify in people relying on the drugs for their healthcare needs. Hence, drug regulatory authorities in Ghana must establish and implement rigorous drug scrutinization and testing systems to ensure that only herbal drugs with infinitesimal heavy metal contents are permitted entry into Ghana.
TABLE 2: CONCENTRATIONS OF METALS (MG/KG) IN CHINESE HERBAL DRUG SAMPLES
Metal | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | SE | WHO Limit | Pharmacopoiea China |
Fe | 14.78E-02 | 47.56E-01 | 27.42E-01 | 49.39E-03 | 10 | 0.20 |
Pb | 8.87E-04 | 7.7E-03 | 28.17E-04 | 83.65E-05 | 0.30 | 0.50 |
Cd | 5.10E-05 | 11.08E-03 | 27.43E-04 | 10.30E-04 | 0.20 | 0.03 |
As | 53.70E-03 | 201.47E-03 | 12.06E-02 | 16.16E-03 | 0.20 | 0.20 |
Cu | 12.76E-03 | 35.58E-01 | 79.72E-02 | 40.32E-02 | 0.04 | 0.20 |
Concentration of Fe, Pb, Cd, As and Cu in Registered Indian Herbal Drugs Sold in Ghana: Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu levels in the Indian herbal drugs were analyzed and presented in Table 3. Metal levels ranged between 10.67E-04 mg/kg (Pb) to 82.50E-0 2 mg/kg (As) Table 3. Sixty percent of drugs for malaria (IND-02), hemorrhoids (IND-03), stomachaches (IND-06), toothaches (IND-07), jaundice (IND-08), and loss of appetite (IND-10) had Cu above WHO and Pharmacopeia (China) recommended levels Table 3.
TABLE 3: CONCENTRATIONS OF METALS (MG/KG) IN INDIAN HERBAL DRUG SAMPLES
Metal | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | SE | WHO Limit | Pharmacopoiea China |
Fe | 12.72E-02 | 42.51E-01 | 21.24E-01 | 4.23E-01 | 10 | 0.20 |
Pb | 10.67E-04 | 12.67E-04 | 11.77E-04 | 2.28E-05 | 0.30 | 0.50 |
Cd | 11.67E-04 | 25.00E-04 | 17.03E-04 | 1.67E-04 | 0.20 | 0.03 |
As | 6.84E-02 | 82.50E-02 | 25.01E-02 | 6.99E-02 | 0.20 | 0.20 |
Cu | 12.19E-03 | 74.80E-01 | 15.05E-01 | 6.43E-01 | 0.04 | 0.20 |
Mean levels of the metals ranged between 11.77E-0 4 mg/kg (Pb) to 15.05E-0 1 mg/kg (Cu) Table 3. The high Cu contents in IND-02, IND-03, IND-06, IND-07, IND-08, and IND-10 might have originated from low pH and high Cu contents of soils in areas raw materials were sourced.
This observation agreed favourably with that made in analogous studies 45. The possible low soil pH might have resulted in highly mobile and spontaneous accessible Cu-ions for absorption by roots of the plant as seen in similar studies 45.
Past or present unrestricted anthropogenic Cu discharge into the environments of plants from mining, smelting, manufacturing, agriculture, or improper waste disposal technologies might have also played a vital role in high Cu levels in IND-02, IND-03, IND-06, IND-07, IND-08 and IND-10. The herbal drugs (IND-02, IND-03, IND-06, IND-07, IND-08 and IND-10) could also be hyper-accumulators of Cu due to the presence of highly water-soluble and low-molecular-weight metal-receptors compounds in the herbal drugs.
These metal-receptors provided trafficking pathways for Cu-ions uptake by plants. The trafficked Cu-ions might have been coordinated to organic acids in the herbal drugs (IND-02, IND-03, IND-06, IND-07, IND-08, and IND-10), which ensured that high enough Cu levels were available to the plants to perform its biological functions before plants were used for IND-02, IND-03, IND-06, IND-07, IND-08, and IND-10. The elevated Cu levels in IND-02, IND-03, IND-06, IND-07, IND-08, and IND-10 suggest that frequent ingestion could activate liver damage, abdominal pain cramps, nausea diarrhea and vomiting, as reported a similar study 45.
Concentration of Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu in Unregistered Ghanaian Herbal Drugs: The unregister Ghanaian herbal drugs origin had mean levels of metals between 12.37E-0 4 mg/kg (Cu) to 15.34E-0 1 mg/kg (Fe) Table 4. The mean levels of the metals were below 46 and Pharmacopeia China levels protective of human health Table 4. Twenty percent of the drugs (GHA-03) (for gonorrhea) and GHA-09) (for sexual weakness) had recorded Pb levels consistent with 0.30 mg/kg allowed by 46 but below 0.50 mg/kg permitted by Pharmacopeia (China). Seventy percent of the herbal drugs for various illnesses viz: chest pain (GHA-01), dysentery (GHA-02), syphilis (GHA-05), fever (GHA-06), jaundice (GHA-07), malaria (GHA-08), and diabetes (GHA-10) had lead levels below WHO and Pharmacopeia (China) recommended levels Table 4.
TABLE 4: CONCENTRATIONS OF METALS (MG/KG) IN GHANAIAN HERBAL DRUG SAMPLES
Metal | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | SE | WHO Limit | Pharmacopoiea China |
Fe | 13.12E-02 | 1003.15E-02 | 15.34E-01 | 9.60E-01 | 10 | 20 |
Pb | 10.12E-02 | 35.54E-02 | 24.99E-02 | 2.38E-02 | 0.30 | 0.50 |
Cd | 2.22E-03 | 31.86E-03 | 16.04E-03 | 2.96E-03 | 0.20 | 0.03 |
As | 14.33E-04 | 80.34E-04 | 47.70E-04 | 7.06E-04 | 0.20 | 0.20 |
Cu | 11.33E-04 | 13.67E-04 | 12.37E-04 | 2.14E-05 | 0.04 | 0.20 |
Lead level (35.00E-0 2 mg/kg) in the remaining 10% of the drugs (GHA-04) (for dyspepsia) was above 30.00E-0 2 mg/kg permitted by WHO Table 4. This shows that GHA-04 could prompt unwanted health situations such as intellectual disability, abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, irritability, memory problems, infertility, tingling in hands and feet, and other conditions linked to elevated Pb levels when GHA-04 is ingested over an extended period.
Human Health Risk Assessment of Herbal Drugs: To evaluate the probable health effect of Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu that could arise upon recurrent and prolonged ingestion of the herbal drugs investigated, background concentrations of Fe, Pb, Cd, As and Cu in the herbal drugs were assessed. The mean background concentrations were used to compute each metal's health Index (HI) and hazard quotient (HQ) in the various herbal drugs. The HI and HQ calculated were presented in Tables 5, 6, and 7 and values compared with those reported in similar studies 39, 42, 44.
Health Indices and Hazard Quotients for Metals in Herbal Drugs: Health effects of Fe, Pb, Cd, As and Cu on humans via incessant and recurrent ingestion of the herbal drugs (CHI, IND, and GHA) were investigated via health indices (HI) and hazard quotient (HQ) assessment models. The HQs were used to analyze the non-cancerous hazard of each metal on consumers over lifetime exposure to the metals via ingestion of the drugs herbal drugs (CHI, IND, and GHA). The health indices (HIs) were employed to evaluate the combined effects of Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu on the exposed population. The HI computation was a vigorous phase in the health risk assessment procedure as diverse heavy metals occurred in the herbal drugs. The HIs and HQs calculated are presented in Tables 5, 6, and 7.
The HIs for the Chinese herbal drugs (CHI) ranged between 2.515E-06 [6] to 253.00E-03 (Fe) whilst the HQs were between 7.83E-04 (Pb) to 371.00E-03 (As). The HIs and HQs calculated (Table 5) were less than 1, indicating that risk levels linked to the metals in the Chinese herbal drugs (CHI-01 to CHI-10) are satisfactory, as reported in analogous studies 39. The HI and HQ data for the Chinese (CHI-01 to CHI-10) Table 5 also suggest that though Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu occurred in the drugs, they were inadequate to trigger any health risk (carcinogenic or non-carcinogenic) linked to them. Hence, consumers of the Chinese herbal drugs (CHI-01 to CHI-10) are unlikely to be hurt by Fe, Pb, Cd, As and Cu contents (CHI-01 to CHI-10) over time of continuous consumption.
TABLE 5: HI AND HQ FOR METALS IN HERBAL DRUGS OF CHINESE HERBAL DRUGS
Metal | Total metal concentration (mg/kg) in herbal drug samples | HI | HQ |
Fe | 2743.00E-03 | 253.00E-03 | 281.20E-03 |
Pb | 2.87E-03 | 2.584E-06 | 7.83E-04 |
Cd | 2.74E-03 | 2.515E-06 | 2.53E-03 |
As | 120.60E-03 | 1.11E-04 | 371.00E-03 |
Cu | 797.20E-03 | 7.35E-04 | 18.30E-03 |
Total | 3665.00E-03 | 261.60E-03 | 673.90E-03 |
Health Indices and Hazard Quotients for Metals in Herbal Drugs: The Indian herbal drugs (IND-01 to IND -10) were also investigated for the possibility to exert any of the unwanted health conditions linked with Fe, Pb, Cd, As and Cu. The HI and HQ were calculated and presented for individual metals Table 6. The HIs for the Indian herbal drugs (IND-01 to IND -10) ranged between 1.08E-06 (Pb) to 25.31E-03 (Fe) whilst the HQs ranged from 3.08E-04 (Pb) to 76.95E-02 (As). The HI and HQ were below 1 for each metal Table 6 indicating that risk levels of Fe, Cu, As, Cd and Pb in the Indian herbal drugs (IND-01 to IND -10) are acceptable as reported elsewhere 39, 42, 44. Based on the HI and HQ data generated (HI < 1 and HQ <1) in Table 6, the Indian herbal drugs (IND-01 to IND -10) appear to be safe, as presented in analogous investigations 45. Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu levels in the drugs (IND-01 to IND -10) were inadequate to provoke any negative health issues often associated with Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu on an exposed population.
TABLE 6: HI AND HQ FOR METALS IN HERBAL DRUGS OF INDIAN ORIGIN
Metal | Total metal concentration (mg/kg) in herbal drug samples | HI | HQ |
Fe | 212.40E-02 | 25.31E-03 | 217.84E-03 |
Pb | 11.77E-04 | 1.08E-06 | 3.08E-04 |
Cd | 17.03E-03 | 1.57E-06 | 15.72E-04 |
As | 25.01E-02 | 2.30E-05 | 76.95E-02 |
Cu | 150.50E-02 | 13.89E-04 | 34.70E-03 |
Total | 388.19E-02 | 21.22E-02 | 102.39E-02 |
Health Indices and Hazard Quotients for Metals in Herbal Drugs of Ghanaian Origin: The unregistered Ghanaian herbal drugs (GHA-01 to GHA-10) were subjected to similar HI and HQ evaluation procedures Table 7.
This was imperative in order to check for possibilities of the metals (Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu) in the drugs (GHA-01 to GHA-10) to activate undesirable health conditions on consumers of the drugs (GHA-01 to GHA -10).
The HIs for the metals were between 1.14E-06 (Cu) to 14.16E-03 (Fe), whereas the HQs ranged between 2.85E-05 (Cu) to 157.33E-03 (Fe) Table 7.
The HI and HQ for the metals (Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu) were less than 1 for each metal Table 7.
The HI and HQ evidence suggest that while Fe, Pb, Cd, As, and Cu were in the drugs (GHA-01 to GHA -10), their associated risk levels were satisfactory and the health conditions of consumers of the drugs (GHA-01 to GHA-10) would not be affected negatively by the levels of Fe, Pb, Cd, As and Cu in the Ghanaian herbal drugs.
TABLE 7: HI AND HQ FOR METALS IN HERBAL DRUGS OF GHANAIAN ORIGINS
Metal | Total metal concentration (mg/kg) in herbal drug samples | HI | Health Quotient (HQ) | |
Fe | 15.34E-01 | 14.16E-03 | 157.33E-03 | |
Pb | 24.99E-02 | 23.06E-05 | 65.90E-03 | |
Cd | 16.04E-03 | 1.48E-05 | 14.80E-03 | |
As | 4.77E-03 | 4.40E-06 | 14.67E-03 | |
Cu | 12.37E-04 | 1.14E-06 | 2.85E-05 | |
Total | 180.59E-02 | 14.40E-02 | 25.27E-02 | |
CONCLUSION: This study assessed levels, health indices (HIs) and hazard quotients (HQs) of Fe 42, 44, Pb, Cd, As and Cu in selected unregistered Ghanaian herbal drugs (GHA-01 to GHA -10) and selected registered Chinese and Indian (CHI-01 to CHI-10) and (IND-01 to IND-10 ) respectively. Metal levels in the drugs (CHI-01 to CHI-10) ranged from 5.10E-05 mg/kg 6 to 47.56 E -01 mg/kg (Fe) whilst their mean levels were 27.42 E-01 ± 49.39 E -0 3 mg/kg (Fe), 28.17 E -04 ± 83.65 E -05 mg/kg (Pb), 27.43 E -04 ± 10.30 E -04 mg/kg [6], 12.06 E -02 ± 16.16 E -03 mg/kg (As) and 79.72 E -02 ± 40.32 E -0 2 mg/kg (Cu). The mean levels were generally below WHO and pharmacopoiea china recommended levels. Iron (Fe) 42, 44, Pb, Cd, as and Cu contributions to the total metal burden (3665.00 E -0 3 mg/kg) of the (CHI -01 to CHI -10) were 55.501% (2743.00E-03, Fe), 0.075% (2.87 E -03 mg/kg, Pb), 0.074% (2.74 E -03 mg/kg, Cd), 3.290% (120.60 E -03 mg/kg, As) and 41.060% (150.50 E -02 mg/kg, Cu).
Iron (Fe) 42, 44, Pb, Cd, As and Cu input to the total health indices (HI, 261.60 E-03) was 99.244% (253.00 E -03, Fe), 9.87 E -04 % (2.584 E -06, Pb), 9.61 E -04% (2.515 E -06, Cd), 42.43 E -03% (1.11 E -04, As) and 53.09 E -02% (13.89E -04, Cu) whereas their contributions to total HQ (673.90E-03) were 41.72% (281.20E-03, Fe), 1.11 % (7.83E-04, Pb), 0.37% ( 2.53E-03, Cd), 54.09 % (371.00E-03, As) and 2.71% (18.30E-03, Cu). Metal levels in the Indian drugs (IND-01 to IND-10) ranged from 10.67E-04 mg/kg (Pb) to 74.80E-01 mg/kg (Cu) whilst their mean levels were 21.24E-01 ± 4.23E-01 mg/kg (Fe), 11.77E-04 ± 2.28E-05 mg/kg (Pb), 16.04E-03 ± 2.96E-03 mg/kg 6, 25.01E-02 ± 6.99E-02 mg/kg (As) and 15.05E-01 ± 6.43E-01mg/kg (Cu).
Aside Cu which had mean level above WHO and Pharmacopoiea (China) acceptable levels in 60% of drugs (IND-02, IND-03, IND-06, IND-07, IND-08, IND-10), mean levels of Fe, Pb, Cd and As were below WHO and Pharmacopoiea (China) recommended levels Table 3. Iron (Fe), Pb, Cd, As and Cu contributions to total metal load (388.19E-02 mg/kg) of (IND-01 to IND-10) were 54.33 % (212.40E-02 mg/kg, Fe), 0.030% (11.77 E -04 mg/kg, Pb), 0.438% (17.03 E-03 mg/kg, Cd), 6.44% (25.01 E -02 mg/kg, As) and 38.76% (150.50E-02 mg/kg, Cu). The metals (Fe 42, Pb, Cd, As and Cu) inputs to the total health indices (HI, 21.22 E -02) were 99.98% (25.31 E-03, Fe), 0.00050% (1.08E-06, Pb), 0.0026% (1.57 E -06, Cd), 0.010% (2.30 E -05, As) and 0.00053% (1.14 E -06, Cu). Iron (Fe), Pb, Cd, As and Cu) contributions to the total HQ (102.39E-02) were 21.27% (217.84 E -03, Fe), 0.030% (3.08 E -04, Pb), 0.153% (15.72 E -04, Cd), 75.15% (76.95 E-02, As) and 3.389% (34.70 E -03, Cu). Metal levels in the drugs (GHA-01 to GHA -10) were between 11.33 E -04 mg/kg (Cu) to 1003.15 E -02 mg/kg (Fe). mean levels of Fe, Pb, Cd, As and Cu were 15.34 E -01± 9.60 E -01 mg/kg (Fe), 24.99 E -02 ± 2.38 E -02 mg/kg (Pb), 16.04 E -03 ± 2.96 E -03 mg/kg [6], 47.70 E -04 ± 7.06 E -04 mg/kg (As) and 12.37 E -04 ± 2.14 E -05 mg/kg(Cu). The mean levels of Fe, Pb, Cd, As and Cu were generally below WHO and Pharmacopoiea (China) suggested levels. Only 1% GHA-04) of the unregistered Ghanaian herbal drugs had recorded Pb level 30.00 E -02 mg/kg permitted by WHO Table 4.
Iron (Fe) 42, Pb, Cd, As and Cu contributions to the total metal load (180.59 E -02 mg/kg) of the (GHA-01 to GHA -10) were 84.35% (15.34 E -01 mg/kg, Fe), 13.83 % (24.99 E -02 mg/kg, Pb), 0.88% (16.04 E -03 mg/kg, Cd), 0.26% (4.77 E -03 mg/kg, As) and 0.68% (12.37 E -04 mg/kg, Cu). Iron (Fe) 42, Pb, Cd, As and Cu contributions to the total health indices (HI, 14.40 E -02) were 99.82% (14.16E-03, Fe), 0.16% (23.06 E -05, Pb), 0.01% (1.48E-05, Cd), 0.003% (4.40 E -06, As) and 0.0007% (1.14 E -06, Cu) whereas their contributions to total HQ (25.27 E -02) were 62.26% (157.33 E -03, Fe), 26.07% (65.90 E -03, Pb), 5.85% ( 14.80 E -03, Cd), 5.80 % (14.67 E -03, As) and 0.011% (2.85 E -05, Cu).
The registered Indian herbal drugs (IND-01 to IND-10) had the higher total metal burden (388.19 E -02 mg/kg) followed by the unregistered Ghanaian herbal drugs (GHA-01 to GHA -10) (180.59E-02 mg/kg) followed by the registered Chinese herbal drugs 3665.00 E -0 3 mg/kg (CHI-01 to CHI-10) (3665.00 E -03 mg/kg). The HI and HQ for individual metals were less than 1 Tables 5, 6, and 7. The total HI and HQ for the metals in each herbal drug sample were also less than 1. These indicate that the individual metals and the combined effects of the metals, cannot induce any of the health conditions often linked to the metals. Thus, all herbal drugs appeared safe for managing and treating the various health conditions and illnesses indicated for them. Although herbal drugs appear harmless when ingested, it is vital for authorities in Ghana to institute strict and robust regulatory control systems to ensure that herbal drugs sold in Ghana are duly registered. Authorities must further subject these herbal drugs to the instituted regulatory systems to safeguard the wellbeing of people that depend on the herbal drugs for their healthcare needs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: We would like to express our heartfelt appreciation to the laboratory technicians at the Soil Research Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in Kwadaso, Kumasi, in the Ashanti Region of Ghana, for their assistance during our research work.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
REFERENCES:
- Boadu AA and A Asase: Documentation of herbal medicines used for the treatment and management of human diseases by some communities in southern Ghana. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2017; 2017.
- Kasole R, HD Martin and J Kimiywe: Traditional medicine and its role in the management of diabetes mellitus: patients’ and herbalists’ perspectives. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2019; 2019.
- Yuan H: The traditional medicine and modern medicine from natural products. Molecules 2016; 21(5): 559.
- Mukhopadhyay S: Heavy metals in indian traditional systems of medicine: a systematic scoping review and recommendations for integrative medicine practice. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 2021.
- Rahman Z and VP Singh: The relative impact of toxic heavy metals (THMs) (arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) (VI), mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb)) on the total environment: an overview. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2019; 191(7): 1-21.
- Sarpong G: Mine water treatment: using precipitation and filtration to remove dissolved antimony. International Journal of Environmental Engineering 2015; 7(34): 285-96.
- Gyamfi ET: Assessment of essential and non-essential elements in selected traditional medicines from India, Ghana and China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2021; 28(2): 1812-22.
- Alaribe CS: Investigation of selected metallic impurities in antimalarial herbal decoctions agbo iba collected from four locations in lagos State, Nigeria. UNILAG Journal of Medicine Science and Technology 2018; 6(1): 45-56.
- Mukherjee PK: Validation of medicinal herbs for anti-tyrosinase potential. Journal of Herbal Medicine 2018; 14: 1-16.
- Shikha K and NS: Gangasagre, toxic effect of heavy metals in cosmetic products and health concern: a review. International Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine 2018; 8(2): 3196-01.
- Choudhury H: An update on natural compounds in the remedy of diabetes mellitus: A systematic review. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine 2018; 8(3): 361-76.
- Sakharkar P: Chambial S: Lead poisoning due to herbal medications. Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry 2017; 32(2): 246-47.
- Lead poisoning due to herbal medications. Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry 2017; 32(4): 500-501.
- Jairoun AA, Shahwan M and HZ Sa’ed: Heavy metal contamination of dietary supplements products available in the uae markets and the associated risk. Scientific Reports 2020; 10(1): 1-9.
- Chetri S: Poisoning Due to herbal medications. American Journal of Pharm Tech Research 7(3): 2017.
- Firempong C: Toxicity and safety implications of herbal. Medicines Used in Africa 2019.
- Engwa GA: Mechanism and health effects of heavy metal toxicity in humans. Poisoning in the Modern World-new Tricks for an Old dog 2019; 10.
- Mahurpawar M: Effects of heavy metals on human health. International J of Res Granthaalayah ISSN2015; 2394-29.
- Fu Z and S Xi: The effects of heavy metals on human metabolism. Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods 2020; 30(3): 167-76.
- Huh DA: Comparison of pure-tone average methods for estimation of hearing loss caused by environmental exposure to lead and cadmium: does the pure-tone average method which uses low-frequency ranges underestimate the actual hearing loss caused by environmental lead and cadmium exposure. Audiology and Neurotology 2018; 23(5): 259-69.
- Obasi PN and BB Akudinobi: Potential health risk and levels of heavy metals in water resources of lead–zinc mining communities of abakaliki, southeast Nigeria. Applied Water Science 2020; 10(7): 1-23.
- Hsueh YM: Association of blood heavy metals with developmental delays and health status in children. Scientific Reports 2017; 7(1): 1-9.
- Antwi SO: Exposure to environmental chemicals and heavy metals, and risk of pancreatic cancer. Cancer Causes & Control 2015; 26(11): 1583-91.
- Hembrom S: A comprehensive evaluation of heavy metal contamination in foodstuff and associated human health risk: a global perspective, in Contemporary environmental issues and challenges in era of climate. Change 2020; 33-63.
- Shelar M, Gawade V and Bhujbal S: S Review on Heavy Metal Contamination in Herbals. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 2021; 7-16.
- Soomro AH: Assessment of heavy metal content of commonly consumed herbal medicines in Sindh, Pakistan. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2021: 1-10.
- Cobbinah PB: Kumasi: Towards a sustainable and resilient cityscape. Cities 2020; 97: 102567.
- Yamoah B and E Adinyira: Developing a criteria for measuring the environmental performance of construction activities in Ghana 2021.
- Ghana Statistical S: Population & housing census: demographic, social, economic & housing characteristics. 2010; 2020.
- Lv WX: Effect of the dry ashing method on cadmium isotope measurements in soil and plant samples. Geo Standards and Geo Analytical Research 2021; 45(1): 245-56.
- Dhesi P: Ventricular tachycardia after ingestion of ayurveda herbal antidiarrheal medication containing aconitum. Archives of Internal Medicine 2010; 170(3): 303-05.
- Nweze EJ: Health risk assessment of heavy metals associated with terminalia catappa fruit consumption obtained from an automobile workshop cluster in nsukka, Nigeria. Current Applied Science and Technology 2022; 1-15.
- Gebeyehu HR and LD Bayissa: Levels of heavy metals in soil and vegetables and associated health risks in Mojo area, Ethiopia. PloS One 2020; 15(1): 0227883.
- O’Leary ES: Creating inclusive classrooms by engaging STEM faculty in culturally responsive teaching workshops. International Journal of STEM Education 2020; 7(1): 1-15.
- Ors ED and Goktas Z: Herbal dietary interventions for weight loss among regularly exercising women in Turkey. Nutrition & Food Science 2021.
- Wang J: Effects of yi sui granules, an herbal medicine, on mds/aml: Similar to Decitabine or Other Mechanisms 2021.
- Wong AR: Chinese herbal medicine for weight management: a systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. Journal of Obesity 2021; 2021.
- Šapčanin A: Calculation of hazard quotient based on the content of heavy metals in different mushrooms. Springer.
- Adusei-Mensah F: Heavy metal content and health risk assessment of commonly patronized herbal medicinal preparations from the Kumasi metropolis of Ghana. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering, 2019; 17(2): 609-18.
- Yekeen TA: Assessment of health risk of trace metal pollution in surface soil and road dust from e-waste recycling area in China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2016; 23(17): 17511-24.
- Dehdashti B, Amin MM and Chavoshani A: Other trace elements (heavy metals) and chemicals in. Micro pollutants and Challenges Emerging in the Aquatic Environments and Treatment Processes 2020; 215.
- Fang Y: Concentrations and health risks of lead, cadmium, arsenic, and mercury in rice and edible mushrooms in China. Food chemistry 2014; 147: 147-51.
- Li HY, Cui L and M Cui: Hot topics in chinese herbal drugs research documented in PubMed/MEDLINE® by authors inside china and outside of china in the past 10 years: based on co-word cluster analysis. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 2009; 15(7): 779-85.
- Ababneh FA: The hazard content of cadmium, lead, and other trace elements in some medicinal herbs and their water infusions. International Journal of Analytical Chemistry 2017; 2017.
- Melchart D: Herbal traditional chinese medicine and suspected liver injury: a prospective study World Journal of Hepatology 2017; 9(29): 1141.
- WHO: Antimicrobial resistance and primary health care. World Health Organization 2018.How to cite this article:Sarpong K, Asare EA, Dartey E, Effah-Yeboah E and Balali GI: Heavy metal contents and associated health risk of some ghanaian and asian herbal drugs. Int J Pharm Sci & Res 2022; 13(3): 1383-92. doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.13(3). 1383-92.
All © 2022 are reserved by International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research. This Journal licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
Article Information
42
1383-1392
587 KB
302
English
IJPSR
Kofi Sarpong, Emmanuel Agyapong Asare *, Emmanuel Dartey, Emmanuel Effah-Yeboah and Gadafi Iddrisu Balali
Department of Chemistry Education, College of Agriculture Education, Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training and Entrepreneurial Development, Mampong-Ashanti, Ghana.
kwakuasareagyapong@yahoo.com
03 June 2021
09 September 2021
17 February 2022
10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.13(3).1383-92
01 March 2022