PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS OF NEXT GENERATION PRINTING TECHNOLOGIES: A BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW

PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS OF NEXT GENERATION PRINTING TECHNOLOGIES: A BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW

O. Baisya ^{* 1}, S. Bhowmick ¹, C. Sengupta ¹ and A. Das Bhowmik ²

Department of Pharmaceutics ¹, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Institute of Pharmacy, Chakdaha - 741222, West Bengal, India.

Diagnostics Facility ², AIC-Centre for Cellular & Molecular Biology, Hyderabad - 500039, Telangana, India.

ABSTRACT: Next-generation printing or commonly known as three-dimensional (3D) printing (3DP), is a fabrication process of construction of a 3D object using a computer-aided design or digital 3D model. The 3D object is created layer by layer by depositing, joining, or solidifying a feedstock material such as thermoplastic polymer under the control of a computer-designed program. It is considered the latest technology that has the potential to address complex medical and pharmaceutical problems, such as prototyping essential medical devices, equipment, and novel drug delivery systems. The ability of 3DP to produce medications with accurate specifications tailored to the needs of individual patients has indicated the possibility of developing personalized medicines. The technology allows dosage forms to be precisely printed in various shapes, sizes, and textures, in a limited time period. In spite of many potential medical and economic benefits of 3DP, some technical and regulatory challenges are associated with the widespread application of 3DPin the pharmaceutical sector; those need to be addressed by proper research so that the benefit of this technology can be utilized fully. Along with 3DP, more advanced and sophisticated printing technologies like 4D/5D printing are also introduced and have already been explored in biomedical applications. However, the utility of these technologies in the pharmaceutical drug manufacturing process is still in the early experimental phase and gradually evolving. This review article illustrates the recent trends, challenges, and future prospects of 3D Pin pharmaceutical applications, along with the highlights of the ongoing transition from 3D to 4D/5D printing.

Three-dimensional printing, Computer-aided design, Thermoplastic polymer, Novel drug delivery systems, 4D/5D printing

INTRODUCTION: Three-dimensional printing (3DP) is nowadays a well known advanced additive manufacturing technology used widely in various fields of technology, art, and science, however most importantly used in various pharmaceutical and medical applications like regenerative medicine, diagnosis, implants, developments of artificial tissues and organs, etc. Fig. 1.

The fastest-growing demand for customized pharmaceuticals and medical devices makes the impact of 3DP technology increased rapidly in recent years.

The technique prints or manufactures one or more entities in a layer-by-layer manner with a 3D printer, and by adjusting the size and shape of each individual layer, a complex, solid object is formed from a digital model. It applies the additive shaping principle and based on that principle; it builds the physical 3D structures by successive addition of material ^{1, 2}. The main advantages of 3DP include high reproducibility, fast and accurate manu-facturing, personalized product series, superficial modifications of a product at a designed level with no restrictions on its spatial arrangement, and convenient, cost-effective manufacture ³. The most significant applications are found in regenerative medicine, artificial tissue, and organ generation, ophthalmological implants, 3D printed drugs, customized prosthetics, medical phantoms, and cancer research ^{1, 4}. There are mainly 3 types of 3D printing systems that are commonly used in pharmaceutical developments; printing-based inkjet system, nozzle-based deposition systems, and laser-based writing systems ⁵.

These printing technologies mostly differ in speeds and resolutions, but the main operating systems are based on either extrusion or powder/liquid solidification ⁴. Among all these printing processes, extrusion-based printing like fused deposition modeling (FDM) and pressure-assisted micro-synringes (PAM)are widely used by researchers and manufacturers due to several advantages like low cost, ability to fabricate hollow objects, ability to print using a range of polymers with or without drug, ability to sustain drug release by altering the geometry and polymer, ability to print at room temperature, etc. ⁶ However each of these techniques have their specific advantages and limitations. Regardless of these differences in material deposition mechanism, the basic method of function is the same. A computer-aided design (CAD) file is prepared based on the desired 3D model, then the 3D printer follows the instructions of the CAD file and builds the object in a specific shape and size by moving the print head along the 3Ddirections ⁷. The materials used as ink formulation covers a wide range of compounds from plastics, metals, ceramics or a combination thereof, making the process highly versatile ².

Within the last decade, patient-centric personalized drug development has been under considerable attention. It was focused on novel dosage forms and technological processes. Growing demand for customized devices combined with an expansion of technological innovation drives the major progress in personalized medicine to meet the anatomical needs of patients ⁴. Within many discoveries introduced into the pharmaceutical and biomedical market, 3DP technology has revolutionized the area of personalized medicine. 3DP offers many novel strategies and approaches in the field of novel drug delivery systems in suitable dosage forms, and gradually it is becoming of much interest in the pharmaceutical industry. Recently engineered solid dosage forms with complex inner structures, geometries, surface texture, multiple combinations of drugs, and many different types of drug delivery systems like oral control released systems, microchip, pills, implants, rapidly dissolving tablets, multiphase release dosage forms, etc. have been developed using this technology ^8-13. 3DP technology showed many industrial benefits over conventional technologies in designing and fabricating novel drug delivery dosage forms. However, there are some technical and regulatory challenges and limitations associated with the widespread application of this technology in the pharmaceutical sector ¹⁴.

The main disadvantage of 3DP is that this only takes into account the initial state of the printed structure and considers it static and inanimate ¹⁵. To solve this problem, a new concept called 4D printing (4DP) was launched in 2013, allowing bioengineered constructs to be pre-programmed to evolve in a particular way after printing ^{16, 17}. Along with 4DP, 4D bio-printing or laser-assisted bioprinting has also recently emerged, which is a dedicated extension of 3D bio-printing that restructure the biochemical and biophysical compositions, in addition to the hierarchical morphology of different tissues using stimuli-responsive biomaterials and cells ¹⁸. The major drawback of 4D printing is not able to print complex shapes having curved surfaces ¹. To overcome this problem, another new concept5D, printing (5DP) was introduced in 201619. 5DP technology is an extension of 3DP, also known as five-axis 3D printing, where the print head has the capability to move around from 5 different angles due to a movable flat terrain. This creates arched layers which are stronger than the traditional3D/4D printed flat layers ²⁰.

This review describes the latest developments of some 3DP technologies suitable for pharmaceutical manufacturing, their advantages, and disadvantages associated with its utility based on current and future perspectives. The parallel development of higher next-generation printing technologies like 4D/5D printing technologies and their applications in medical and pharmaceutical manufacturing is also discussed briefly. Lastly, it briefly summarizes the application of this technology in the ongoing crisis-response efforts to take on the COVID-19 pandemic situation generated worldwide for the past few months.

FIG. 1: DIFFERENT APPLICATIONSOF 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY IN MEDICAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL FIELDS

Applications of 3DP Technology in Novel Drug Development and Delivery: The principle application of 3DP technology in pharmaceutical developments pertains to novel drug development and delivery with correct dosage forms. The wide spread use of this application benefited mostly the rapidly growing personalized medicine field. Using this technology, various drug delivery systems can be developed with high accuracy and in short time, such as tablets, capsules, multilayered drug delivery systems, nano-suspensions, orodispersible films, transdermal systems, wound healing patches, vaginal and rectal delivery systems etc. ^21-26 The most commonly used pharmaceutical active ingredients in these, include steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, acetaminophen, caffeine, salicylic acid, antibiotics, paclitaxel, prednisolone, folic acid, insulin, captopril, curcumin etc. ^{4, 26} The ink formulations in 3D printers have been obtained from a number of both natural polymers like alginate, HA, collagen, chitosan etc. and synthetic polymers like PCL, PLA, PEG, PGA, diacrylate, PVP, PVAc, cellulose derivatives etc. ⁴ The main advantage of using synthetic polymers over natural polymers is that the synthetic polymers can be easily modified to meet specific requirements by optimizing mechanical and physicochemical properties, pH and temperature responses and they can be functionalized with various biomolecules. Sometimes blended polymers (natural+synthetic) are also used as bioinks to enhance and adapt cellular responses within 3D construct ¹. PLA is a biocompatible synthetic polymer that has recently been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) biomedical applications such as tissue engineering, controlled drug delivery systems and orthopaedicim plants ²⁷. Many recent studies focus on the mechanical and biocompatibility / bioactivity properties of PLA or its blends after 3Dprinting ^{28, 29}.

The first known 3D printed drug in tablet form, that was approved by FDA and was commercialized for the treatment of epilepsy is Spritam® by Aprecia Pharmaceuticals30. The drug (levitiracetam) was made by the layer-by-layer production system using ZipDose technique based on power bed fusion ³¹. A year after Clark et. al., ³² in association with a British pharmaceutical company Glaxo-SmithKline conducted a study where inkjet 3D printing and ultraviolet (UV) curing were used to create a tablet Ropinirole HCL, a dopamine agonist drug  used for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease and restless legs syndrome. Using this set-up, batches of 25 tablets with a 5 mm diameter were produced.

Total printing time was 1.5 h or approximately 4 minutes per tablet. Curing time was an additional 7.5 min per batch. The researchers concluded that “UV inkjet printing has been demonstrated as a platform to produce solid oral dosage forms for the first time ³².” Nose-shaped masks, filled with salicylic acid, used as anti-acne agents, had been developed in a short and competent manner ³³. These are known as personalized tropical treatment devices. 3DP technology has also been used in chemotherapy for cancer treatment to reduce its side effects ³⁴. A construction of patches loaded with 5-fluorouracil, poly (lactic-coglycolic) acid and PCL had been successfully and efficiently printed and implanted directly into pancreatic cancer ³⁵. Another commercial use of 3DP technology has been seen in designing 3D printed polypill ^{36, 37}. Polypills are single personalized tablets made in combination of several drugs. These drugs are mostly designed for elderly persons who use poly medicines. Table 1 summarizes the 3DP technologies applied in the development of pharmaceutical drug delivery systems and the suitable polymers exploited with various dosage forms ^{9, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38-68}.

TABLE 1: SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT 3DP TECHNOLOGIES EXPLORED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF NOVEL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS

Challenges of 3D Printing in Novel Drug Development and Delivery Systems: Even though the 3DP technology offers several advantages in designing pharmaceutical products over conventional manufacturing methods, there are also some limitations that can hinder the progression of this technology to commercialize. It faces technical challenges like optimization process, improving the performance of the product for versatile use, selections of appropriate raw materials, post-treatment measures, etc. ⁶⁹ There are concerns include technical difficulties associated with printing of large volumes of materials, slow printing times, availability of materials are limited at present because of the recent arrival of this technology and high cost of the 3D printers1. Also, to attain the quality of 3D products, some essential technical parameters are required to be optimized like printing rate, printing passes, line velocity of the print head, interval time between two printing layer, the distance between the nozzles and the powder layer, etc. ^{70, 71} It is also important for post-processing after prototyping like drying methods, as it has major impact on the quality of the finished 3D printed products ^72-74. To increase the drug loading capacity in 3D printed processed tablet, uniaxial compression and suspension dispersed methodologies are adopted, but this technique suffers from increased complexity and clogging of spray nozzle ^{75, 76}.

For bio-printing, it is also essential to further develop more detailed in-vitro and in-vivo studies to assess the efficacy and, most importantly the safety concerns associated with the widespread application of 3D printed drugs, tissues, organs, and medical devices1. Since the technology is mostly based on computer-generated machine learning and most recently artificial intelligence-based models, technical, operational and systemical errors cannot be avoided. One has to take care and ensure the utmost accuracy in designing these models.

Despite these limitations and uncertainties, we have to understand that this technology is still in an early development phase and can be seen as a research subject. Till date, the only known 3D printed drug that was commercialized is known as Spritam® by Aprecia Pharmaceuticals, used for the treatment of epilepsy ³⁰.

Future Prospects of 3D Printing: The initial developments and research studies clearly show the utility of 3DP technology in different medical fields, including the pharmaceutical sector. It depicts a prospective future of this technology in drug manufacturing. The significance of this technology in the pharmaceutical sector is growing inevitably. The technology has great potential in compiling personalized dosage forms that can play a remarkable role in personalized medicine ⁷⁷. Also, patients will reduce their medication load to one polypill per day, which will produce patient conformity ^{36, 37}. 3D printing technologies can change the pharmacy practice by allowing individualized medication and tailored specifically to each patient, although there are technical and regulatory hurdles that have to overcome ^{1, 69-76, 78}. Drug manufacturing and distribution is usually a costly process in the pharmaceutical industry. 3D printed tablet production can be done in localized conditions within the clinic or in the local pharmacies ^{79, 80}. Recently approved 3D printed tablet called Spritam® has created a benchmark for the pharmaceutical companies ³⁰. Many such investigations are already underway as many scientific articles can be seen in recent times to discuss 3DP technology or highlighting recent findings of 3DP technology. In a recent update, a coaxial needle extrusion 3D technology was used to print active pharmaceutical components and create combinations of controlled release of drugs ⁸¹.

Transition from 3D to 4D/5D Printing: Although the 3DP technology has several advantages in designing pharmaceutical products over conventional manufacturing methods, there are also some technical challenges that exist with the technology that has been already discussed in the previous section. Various methods have been developed to overcome these technical challenges and can be classified according to the formula applied to assemble the material or its physical state ⁸². The most commonly used methods for processing pure polymers and polymer nano-composites for biomedical applications include stereolithography, inkjet, micro-extrusion, and laser-based printing ⁸³. Even after that, each of these methods has its own limitations1. The main disadvantage of 3DP technology itself is that this only considers the initial state of the printed structure and considers it as static and inanimate ¹⁵, thus unable to build complex bio-structures ⁴. DP technology was arrived primarily to overcome this limitation and also to take care of some of the technical difficulties associated with the 3DP17.4DP has the capacity to reshape or self-assemble with respect to time. It has 4 dimensions i.e., x, y, z-axis, and a fourth dimension which is time. Unlike 3DP, 4DP uses the ability of shape and functionality transformation over time when exposed to intrinsic/external stimuli allowing a more precise replication of the dynamics of the indigenous issues and is based on the combination of smart biomaterials ^{16, 84-86}.

4D printed material has the ability to act on certain parameters with respect to the environment like humidity, temperature, etc., and it changes its shape according to the environment. 4DP technology has also included few technological advances over 3DP for printing adaptable objects ^{1, 87}. There are a few difficulties and limitations that also exist for the 4DP technology. The major disadvantage is that it is unable to print complex shapes having curved surface ¹. Also, it is observed that 4D printed materials are less stable with respect to environment temperature88. To overcome these difficulties of 4DP, another advanced printing technology was evolved based on 5 dimensions, known as 5D printing (5DP) ¹⁹. 5DP is the latest printing technology in additive manufacturing in which both the print head and printable object rotate along with x, y, and z-axis altogether with five degrees of freedom89. It can produce curved layers or dipped shapes very precisely as per design restraints. In this process, the printed part simultaneously move while the printer head prints along the five axis. The printbed moves forward and backward along with x, y, z axis which allows the object to be printed from all 5 axes instead from only one point of printing ^{20, 88, 89}.

4DP method is mainly used in manufacturing next-generation medical devices for targeted drug delivery, by enhancing the capability of already established 3DP technology in this field, where personalized medical treatments are important such as dentistry, implants, prosthetics, etc. ⁹⁰ 4D-printed devices can contain pharmaceutical drugs and release them when the environment of the targeted location provides the correct stimulus. Few examples of such devices are 4D-printed containers ⁹¹, theragrippers that were particularly tested for the controlled release of drugs in the gastrointestinal tract ⁹², different types of stents ^93-95, and splints ^96-98 used in surgical procedures. 5DP technology is currently tested for manufacturing medical or surgical tools like mosquito forceps, monopolar diathermy, debakey forceps, deaver retractor, etc., those having complex curved-like structures ⁸⁸. 5DP can also be used to manufacture artificial body parts like hands, legs, lower jaw, teeth that have complex shapes of implants with high strength, as prosthetic implants ^{19, 88, 89}. Wide-scale applications of both 4D and 5D printing technologies are still in their infancy, and most of the activity now is still under research and development.

Application of 3DP Technology in Healthcare against COVID19: The global uncertainty created by the novel COVID-19 pandemic has pushed the world into a severe crisis that is still unfolding and gradually evolving. Healthcare systems are on a war footing path to handle the pandemic situation by increasing supplies of medicines, protective materials, and trained workers. Crisis-generated efforts are in action to assuage the shortages of essential medical supplies.

There is a need for more pharmaceutical factories to manufacture on-demand medicines and medical devices for a range of essential services in healthcare. In this context, a flexible advanced manufacturing network with mostly computational approach enabled by a distribution of 3D-printing factories has become a great potential, especially at this time of social distancing practices.

3DP technology has shown its capabilities in response to COVID19 by demonstrating its competitive advantage in this emergency situation ^99-102. It has stepped up to become a vital technology to support improved healthcare and our general response to the emergency at the present pandemic situation. The eminent manufacturers and researchers implicated the potential of 3DP technologies and channeled them for developing personal protective equipment like face masks, face shields, respirators, medical devices like ventilator valves, emergency respiration devices, testing devices, sample collecting devices like naso-pharyngeal swabs, etc. and other gadgets ^{101, 102}.

Different types of 3DP technologies were used for this purpose like fused filament fabrication (FFF), FDM, selective laser sintering (SLS), stereo lithography (SLA), etc. ^{101, 102} As the vaccine development process against novel coronavirus are currently undergoing different stages, the healthcare professionals are treating their patients with the existing medical drugs.

To use the available drugs in the best way, it has been emphasized by the various professionals to adopt the novel3DP technologies in delivering controlled healing chemical and organic compounds. Formulations based on micro-sized structures used for drug delivery using 3DP technologies are believed to be highly effective in curing patients suffering from pandemic ^{10, 53, 57, 70}.

It is believed that long-standing health problems, generally observed in pandemic condition, may be solved by these systems that allow synchronized use of multiple drug components and other spatial models of drug deposition within the hydrogel or polymer matrix ^{33, 101, 102}.

Focusing on COVID-19, these revelations of 3DP technologies can be lined up well with the current demands of personalized medicine in the pharmaceutical sector ^100-105. Although at present there are no specific antivirals drugs for the treatment of COVID-19, several already present and well-characterized antiviral drugs are being considered for therapies ¹⁰⁶. Soon, it may be possible to use these technologies to effectively and rapidly print drugs like lopinavir/ritonavir, remdesivir, hydroxyl-chloroquine, etc., that are often being used now for the symptomatic treatment of COVID-19 patients and also as preventive medicine for health workers.

Although at present, very few studies are focused on the treatment of the COVID-19 patients as the current regulations are highly stringent due to the risk level, but this technology definitely has the potential to revolutionize the pharmaceutical industry by making faster research, development and production of drugs applicable to patients with COVID-19. The research activities will endeavor to categorize the 3DP technologies based on their superiorities in the fabrication of drug delivery systems as well as the formulation.

CONCLUSION: The utility of 3D/4D/5D printing technologies described in this review article shows the benefits of these technologies in the pharma-ceutical industry, especially for the development of novel drug delivery systems. Although the development of these methods in the field of pharmacy is only in its early phase, but in the near future, these approaches will surely be utilized to fabricate and wangle various novel dosage forms to achieve optimized drug release profiles, develop effective personalized medicines, evade incompatibilities between multiple drugs, design multiple-release dosage forms, limit degradation of biological molecules and for many other purposes. Although commercial production of such novel dosage forms is still in a challenging phase, the scientists and researchers are certain that the modern pharmaceutical industry is seeing a turning point and that the 3DP of solid dosage forms are set to revolutionize the drug delivery systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: None. This review is compiled by the four authors based on the latest developments.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST: Authors have no conflict of interest.

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     How to cite this article:

     Baisya O, Bhowmick S, Sengupta C and Bhowmik AD: Pharmaceutical applications of next generation printing technologies: a brief literature review. Int J Pharm Sci & Res 2021; 12(6): 2995-05. doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.12(6).2995-05.

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