PHARMACOGNOSTIC INSIGHTS, PHYTOMETABOLITE ANALYSIS AND IN-VITRO ASSESSMENT OF ANTIOXIDANT, ANTI-DIABETIC AND ANTI-PARKINSON’S EFFECTS OF KALANCHOE FEDTSCHENKOI LEAVES

PHARMACOGNOSTIC INSIGHTS, PHYTOMETABOLITE ANALYSIS AND IN-VITRO ASSESSMENT OF ANTIOXIDANT, ANTI-DIABETIC AND ANTI-PARKINSON’S EFFECTS OF KALANCHOE FEDTSCHENKOI LEAVES

D. Venkateshwari *, Meena Prabha and B. Sangameswaran

Department of Pharmacognosy, SSM College of Pharmacy, Chinniyampalayam, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India.

ABSTRACT: Background: Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi is a traditionally used medicinal plant reputed for its antioxidant, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective properties. However, detailed scientific validation of its pharmacognostic and bioactive potential is limited. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the pharmacognostic characteristics, phytochemical profile, and in-vitro biological activities of K. fedtschenkoi leaves to support their therapeutic applications. Methods: Macroscopic, microscopic, and physicochemical analyses were performed to ensure plant authenticity and quality. Preliminary phytochemical screening identified flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, glycosides, phenolic compounds, terpenoids, and carbohydrates. The ethanolic leaf extract was analyzed by High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) and Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS), revealing 69 compounds, with 1,2,3,4-Cyclopentanetetrol (46.94%) as the major constituent. Antioxidant activity was assessed using the DPPH assay. Antidiabetic potential was evaluated via α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition assays, while acetylcholinesterase inhibition was performed to determine neuroprotective activity. Results: The extract showed moderate antioxidant activity (IC₅₀ = 83.06 μg/mL) and dose-dependent inhibition of α-amylase (IC₅₀ = 863.42 μg/mL) and α-glucosidase (IC₅₀ = 973.46 μg/mL), indicating antidiabetic potential. Strong acetylcholinesterase inhibition (IC₅₀ = 59.77 μg/mL, R² = 0.9917) suggested neuroprotective efficacy. Conclusion: K. fedtschenkoi leaves exhibit significant antioxidant, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective activities, supporting their traditional use. These findings provide a basis for future development of standardized herbal formulations and therapeutic applications in oxidative stress, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease.

Keywords: Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi, Antioxidant activity, Antidiabetic, neurodegenerative diseases

INTRODUCTION:

Herbal Medicine ^{1, 2}: Herbal medicine (HM) continues to serve as a primary healthcare resource globally, especially in developing countries, due to its accessibility, safety, and cultural acceptance.

India possesses a rich heritage of plant-based therapies; however, many medicinal plants remain insufficiently investigated for their pharmacological potential and bioactive constituents. The lack of standardization and limited scientific validation underscore a critical research gap.

Succulents ^{3, 4}: Succulent species, such as those in the genus Kalanchoe, are adapted to arid environments via specialized water-storage tissues. Beyond ecological significance, they are emerging as potential sources of bioactive compounds with medicinal properties, yet systematic studies on their therapeutic effects are limited.

FIG. 1:

Diabetes Mellitus AND Parkinson’s Disease ^{5, 6, 7, 8, 9}: Diabetes mellitus (DM) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) remain significant global health challenges. DM involves chronic hyperglycemia leading to organ complications, while PD is characterized by progressive dopaminergic neuron loss and motor dysfunction. Conventional treatments often have side effects and limited disease-modifying potential, emphasizing the need for safer, plant-based alternatives with antioxidant, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective properties.

Study Objective: To address these gaps, the present study aims to evaluate the pharmacognostic characteristics, phytochemical profile, and in-vitro antioxidant, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective activities of Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi leaves, providing a scientific foundation for future therapeutic applications.

METERIALS AND METHODS:

Plant Collection: Fresh leaves of Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi were collected in February 2025 from Gobichettipalayam, Erode district, Tamil Nadu. The plant was botanically identified and authenticated by Dr. P. Radha, Research Officer (Botany), Siddha Medicinal Plants Garden, Mettur Dam. It belongs to the Crassulaceae family.

Pharmacognostical Study ¹⁰:

Organoleptic Characters: Macroscopic studies the fresh leaves Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi of were collected and different organoleptic characters such as colour, odour, taste, size, shape, type were observed. These parameters are considered useful in the qualitative control of the crude drug.

Microscopy:

Transverse Section: Fresh specimens were cut into thin transverse section using a sharp blade and the sections were stained with 1% Safranin and 0.5% fast green. Transverse sections were observed at different magnifications under Trinocular Microscope (Magnus MX21iLED) and micro photographs captured using Magnus Pro 3.7 digital camera under bright field.

Fresh, mature leaves were cleaned and sectioned from the middle region between the midrib and margin. Samples were cleared using 10% NaOH, rinsed with water, and mounted in glycerin. Leaf constants like stomatal number, stomatal index, epidermal cell count, and palisade ratio were observed under a light microscope with a digital camera.

Powder Microscopy: About 0.5gm of the finely powdered sample was mounted in Glycerin at room temperature for 2 hrs and observed under 10X and 40X objective of bright field microscope (Meswox, India) for powder characteristics. Photomicrographs of diagnostic characters were captured using attached camera.

Physicochemical Analysis Study ¹¹: Physicochemical analysis of Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi leaf powder was carried out using reported methods. Following determinations were done.

• Loss on drying
• Total Ash
• Acid insoluble ash
• Water soluble ash
• Water soluble extractive
• Alcohol soluble extractive
• Swelling index
• Foaming index
• pH

Extraction of Plant Material ¹²: Fresh leaves of Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi were coarsely powdered, and 100 g of the material was extracted with ethanol (60–80 °C) using a Soxhlet apparatus. The extract was then concentrated by simple distillation. The yield, color, and consistency were documented for subsequent phytochemical and pharmacological investigations.

Preliminary Phytochemical Analysis ¹³: All plant materials underwent preliminary phytochemical screening using standard protocols to identify bioactive constituents. The study focused on major secondary metabolites, including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, glycosides, and phenolics. These compounds are linked to therapeutic activities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory effects. The findings provide a basis for further detailed phytochemical and in-vitro pharmacological investigations.

HPTLC ^{14, 15}: Various solvent systems were tested, and the optimal separation was achieved using ethyl acetate:toluene:formic acid (6:1:0.1). Ethanol extracts of Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi were applied on silica gel 60 F254 aluminium plates (10 × 10 cm) using a CAMAG ATS4 system. After development in a pre-saturated chamber, plates were dried and visualized under UV light at 254 nm and 366 nm using a CAMAG Visualizer. Densitometric scanning was performed with TLC Scanner 4, and Rf values were recorded using winCATS software. Post-derivatization was done with vanillin-sulphuric acid and heated at 105°C, followed by scanning at 575 nm to document the final fingerprint profiles.

(GCMS) ^{16, 17}: GC-MS was employed to analyze the ethanol extract of Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi to identify bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, and terpenoids. This technique is widely used to quantify active constituents in herbal preparations applied in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and food products. The analysis was conducted using an AOC-20i autosampler and a GC-QP2010SE instrument. Key operating conditions included a column oven temperature of 50°C, injector temperature of 250°C, and split injection mode. The mobile phase flow rate was 1.20 mL/min, with a purge flow of 3.0 mL/min and a split ratio of 10:1. The mass spectrometer was set to scan mode (m/z 50–500), with an ion source temperature of 200°C and interface temperature of 250°C. The total run time was 35 minutes, and data acquisition was carried out using standardized parameters to ensure accurate compound detection and profiling.

In-vitro Antioxidant Study ¹⁸:

DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity: Prepared 0.1 mM of DPPH solution in methanol and add 100 μl of this solution to 300 μl of the solution of Sample at different concentration (500, 250, 100, 50, and 10 μg/ml). The mixtures have to be shaken vigorously and allowed to stand at room temperature for 30 minutes. Then the absorbance has to be measured at 517 nm using a UV-VIS spectrophotometer. (Ascorbic acid can be used as the reference). Lower absorbance values of reaction mixture indicate higher free radical scavenging activity. The capability of scavenging the DPPH radical can be calculated by using the following formula

DPPH scavenging effect (% inhibition) = (Absorbance of control - Absorbance of reaction mixture) / Absorbance of control × 100

Pharmacological Study:

In-vitro Antidiabetic Activity:

α-amylase Inhibitory Assay Method ¹⁹: Different concentrations of sample (250 µg/mL - 1000 µg/mL) and Standard (250μg/mL -1000μg/mL) was make up to 100µl using 25mM phosphate buffer pH 6.9, containing 25µl of porcine α amylase at a concentration of 0.5 mg/ml were incubated at 25°C for 10 min. After pre- incubation, 25µl of 0.5% starch solution in 25mM phosphate buffer pH 6.9 was added. The reaction mixtures were then incubated at 25°C for 10 min. The reaction was stopped with 50µl of 96mM 3, 5 di-nitro-salicylic acid colour reagent. The micro plate was then incubated in a boiling water bath for 5 min and cooled to room temperature. Absorbance was measured at 540nm using a microplate reader (Erba, Lisascan).

Percentage of inhibition = Control-Test / Control   × 100

Alpha Glucosidase Inhibitory Assay ²⁰: Different concentrations of sample such as 250 µg/mL – 1000 µg/mL from a stock concentration and make up to 100µl using 0.1M phosphate buffer pH 7.2, containing 25µl of α Glucosidase (SIGMA - ALDRICH, LOT- 0000221279) was incubated at 25°C for 10 min. After pre incubation, 1ml of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.2) containing 37mM sucrose was added. Then the reaction mixture was incubated for 30 min at 37 °C and the reaction was stopped incubating in a boiling water bath for 2 minutes. A tube with phosphate buffer and enzyme was maintained as control. The tubes were added with 250µL of glucose reagent and incubated for 10 minutes followed by measuring absorbance at 510nm using a microplate reader (Erba, Lisascan).

% inhibition = Control-Test / Control × 100

Invitroanti-Parkinson’s Activity ²¹:

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Inhibition Assay: The assay involved reagents such as acetylthiocholine iodide (ATCI), 5,5'-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB), sodium phosphate buffer (pH 8.0), enzyme solution, and the test sample. A modified version of the method developed by Ellman et al. (1961) was followed. Electric eel acetylcholinesterase was used as the enzyme, and ATCI served as the substrate. To perform the assay, 150 µL of 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer, 10 µL of the test sample (dissolved in ethanol), and 20 µL of enzyme solution (0.09 units/mL) were mixed and incubated at 25°C for 15 minutes. Subsequently, 10 µL of DTNB (10 mM) was added, and the reaction was initiated by adding 10 µL of ATCI (14 mM). The hydrolysis of ATCI released thiocholine, which reacted with DTNB to produce a yellow-colored 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoate ion. The absorbance was measured at 410 nm after 10 minutes. Physostigmine, a known AChE inhibitor, was used as a positive control. The percentage inhibition of AChE activity was calculated using the formula

% Inhibition = 100 - [(Test OD / Control OD) × 100]

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Organoleptic Characters: The physical parameters like state, nature, odor, taste, touch, flow, property, and appearance revealed as given in Table 1.

TABLE 1:

 FIG. 2: PETIOLE: A. GROUND PLAN, B- VASCULAR BUNDLE

FIG. 3: MIDRIB: A. GROUND PLAN, B- VASCULAR BUNDLE

 FIG. 4: LAMINA: A. GROUND PLAN, B- MARGIN PORTION ENLARGED

FIG. 5: EPIDERMIS: (A-B)-UPPER EPIDERMIS, (C-D): LOWER EPIDERMIS

Microscopy: Leaf anatomy showed regional variation with distinct ground plans in the petiole and midrib containing vascular bundles. The lamina displayed a typical structure with modified margins. The epidermis, differentiated into upper and lower layers, highlighted protective and regulatory roles.

Powder Microscopy:

FIG. 6: UPPER EPIDERMIS

FIG. 7: LOWER EPIDERMIS WITH ANISOCYTICSTOMATA       

FIG. 8: ISOLATED STOMATA

FIG. 9: EPIDERMIS WITH BROWNISH CONTENT

FIG. 10: PARENCHYMA CELLS              

FIG. 11: PITTED PARENCHYMA

FIG. 12: STONE CELL                              

FIG. 13: SPIRAL VESSEL                

FIG. 14: GROUP OF ANNULAR VESSELS

FIG. 15: BROWNISH CONTENT                       

FIG. 16: FIBRE

Powder Microscopy: The following cellular characters were observed in the K. fedtschenkoi. Xylem vessels with spiral thickenings, pitted vessels, epidermal fragments and stomata etc.,

FIG. 17: UPPER EPIDERMIS, LOWER EPIDERMIS, VEIN ISLET

Quantitative Microscopy: All leaves are Amphistomatic in nature. Anisocyticstomata are seen on both surfaces.

TABLE 2: QUANTITATIVE MICROSCOPY OF KALANCHOE FEDTSCHENKOI LEAVES

Extraction:

TABLE 3: PERCENTAGE YIELD OF TOTAL EXTRACT

Phytochemical Screening:

TABLE 4: PRELIMINARY PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF ETHANOLIC EXTRACT OF KALANCHOE FEDTSCHENKOI LEAVES

Phytochemical Analysis:

High Performance Thin Layer Chromatographic (HPTLC) Profile of Kalonchoe fedstchenkoi Leaves:

Ethanolic Extract:

• Solvent system: Ethyl acetate: Toluene: Formic acid (6:1:0.1)
• Volume applied; Track 1- 5 µl: Track 2 – 7 µl

FIG. 18: UNDER UV-SHORT, LONG, WHITE LIGHT AFTER DERIVATISATION

GCMS:

TABLE 5: GCMS REPORT

Antioxidant Assay:

TABLE 6: DPPH RADICAL SCAVENGING ACTIVITY

FIG. 19: DPPH SCAVENGING ACTIVITY – PERCENTAGE OF INHIBITION ACTIVITY (BAR AND LINE GRAPH PRESENTATION)

TABLE 7: IC50 VALUE OF TESTED SAMPLE: 83.06 ΜG/ML

In-vitro Antidiabetic Activity:

α - Amylase Inhibition Assay:

TABLE 8: STANDARD (ACARBOSE) AND EXTRACT PERCENTAGE INHIBITION

FIG. 20: PERCENTAGE INHIBITION OF ACARBOSE AND EXTRACT-(BAR AND LINE GRAPH PRESENTATION)

IC₅₀ Value-Standard: 214.371µg/mL (Calculated using ED₅₀ PLUS V 1.0 Software):

IC₅₀ Value-Extract: 863.415 µg/mL (Calculated using ED₅₀ PLUS V 1.0 Software):

Alpha Glucosidase Inhibitory Assay:

TABLE 9: STANDARD (ACARBOSE) AND EXTRACT PERCENTAGE INHIBITION

FIG. 21: PERCENTAGE INHIBITION OF ACARBOSE AND EXTRACT-(BAR AND LINE GRAPH PRESENTATION)

IC₅₀ Value –STANDARD –228.758µg/mL (Calculated using ED₅₀ PLUS V1.0 Software):

IC₅₀ Value –EXTRACT –973.461µl/mL (Calculated using ED₅₀ PLUS V1.0 Software):

In-vitro Parkinson’s Activity:

Acetyl Cholinesterase Assay:

OD Value at 410 nm:

TABLE 10: CONTROL MEAN OD VALUE: 1.048

FIG. 22: PERCENTAGE INHIBITION OF SAMPLE AND PHYSOSTIGMINE (ACETYL CHOLINESTERASE ASSAY –INHIBITION ACTIVITY -LINE AND BAR GRAPH PRESENTATION)

TABLE 11: IC50 VALUE OF TESTED SAMPLE: 59.77 ΜG/ML

DISCUSSION:

Macroscopic and Microscopic Characteristics: The physical properties of Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi leaves-including their appearance, texture, odor, taste, and tactile response-were thoroughly assessed to support taxonomic identification. The leaves exhibited a smooth texture with a distinctive odor and characteristic taste. Microscopic examination of the transverse section (T.S.) revealed a clearly defined upper and lower epidermis, parenchymatous tissue, and well-developed vascular bundles containing both xylem and phloem. Stomata were predominantly confined to the lower epidermis, confirming the amphistomatic nature of the leaves with anisocytic stomatal arrangement. Xylem vessels showed spiral and pitted thickenings, while epidermal fragments displayed uniformity, supporting accurate species authentication.

Physicochemical Evaluation: The physicochemical parameter -including ash values, moisture content, and extractive yields-served as essential tools for determining the purity and quality of the plant material. These parameters contribute to the pharmacognostic standardization of K. fedtschenkoi, ensuring reliability and reproducibility in herbal formulations.

Phytochemical Screening: Preliminary phytochemical screening of the ethanolic leaf extract indicated the presence of major secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, phenolic compounds, terpenoids, glycosides, and carbohydrates. These bioactive constituents are known to exhibit a wide range of therapeutic activities, validating the traditional medicinal use of the plant.

Chromatographic Profiling (HPTLC): High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) was utilized for chemical fingerprinting and quality control. Detection was carried out at 245 nm, 366 nm, and 575 nm, revealing distinct bands corresponding to various phytochemical classes, including flavonoids, alkaloids, and phenolic acids. The optimized mobile phase-ethyl acetate: toluene: formic acid (6:1:0.1)-produced well-resolved Rf values, establishing a reproducible chromatographic profile for the ethanolic extract.

GC–MS Analysis: Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis identified more than 69 compounds in the ethanolic extract. The constituents included phenols, organic acids, esters, furans, alcohols, amines, heterocyclic compounds, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, reflecting the chemical diversity and complexity of K. fedtschenkoi leaves. This broad spectrum of metabolites suggests potential for multiple pharmacological applications.

Antioxidant Activity: The antioxidant potential of the ethanolic extract was evaluated using the DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging assay. The extract demonstrated strong free radical scavenging capacity with an IC₅₀ value of 83.06 µg/mL, comparable to that of the standard ascorbic acid. This indicates a significant hydrogen-donating ability and highlights the extract’s potential as a natural antioxidant source.

Antidiabetic Activity: The ethanolic extract exhibited concentration-dependent inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes.

α-Amylase Inhibition: 17.42% (250 µL/mL), 35.64% (500 µL/mL), and 55.55% (1000 µL/mL).

α-Glucosidase Inhibition: 13.21% (250 µL/mL), 30.89% (500 µL/mL), and 51.07% (1000 µL/mL).

These results indicate the extract’s potential to modulate carbohydrate metabolism, suggesting a postprandial glucose-lowering effect. The activity is likely attributed to the synergistic action of phenolic and flavonoid compounds.

Anticholinesterase Activity: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activity was determined using the modified Ellman’s method. The ethanolic extract (KF) demonstrated a clear dose-dependent inhibition ranging from 27.32% at 10 µg/mL to 77.39% at 500 µg/mL, with an IC₅₀ value of 59.77 µg/mL. A strong correlation (R² = 0.9917) between concentration and enzyme inhibition and a steep Hill slope (-2.598) indicated a high degree of enzyme–ligand affinity and potential cooperative binding. These findings suggest moderate to strong neuroprotective potential of the extract.

CONCLUSION: A detailed analysis of Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi leaves highlights their medicinal potential through morphological, microscopic, and phytochemical evaluation, ensuring authenticity and quality of the plant material. Phytochemical screening revealed bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids, glycosides, carbohydrates, and phenolic substances, which are associated with diverse health benefits. The ethanolic extract exhibited significant antioxidant activity (IC₅₀ = 83.06 µg/mL), suggesting its potential as a natural source of free radical scavengers.

It also showed moderate inhibitory effects on digestive enzymes α-amylase (IC₅₀ = 863.42 µg/mL) and α-glucosidase (IC₅₀ = 973.46 µg/mL) indicating possible antidiabetic properties through regulation of postprandial glucose levels. Furthermore, strong acetylcholinesterase inhibition (IC₅₀ = 59.77 µg/mL, R² = 0.9917) points to potential neuroprotective effects, relevant to disorders like Parkinson’s disease. These findings support further research into its therapeutic applications and development of antioxidant, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective formulations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: I sincerely thank the Management, Principal, and Staff of SSM College of Pharmacy, Jambai, for their support and encouragement throughout my research work. My heartfelt gratitude goes to Mrs. P. Meena Prabha, Associate Professor, Department of Pharmacognosy, for her valuable guidance and motivation. I also thank my classmates, laboratory assistants, and library staff for their help and cooperation. Special thanks to my parents and husband for their constant encouragement and moral support.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST: Nil

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    How to cite this article:

    Venkateshwari D, Prabha PM and Sangameswaran B: Pharmacognostic insights, phytometabolite analysis and in-vitro assessment of antioxidant, anti-diabetic and anti-parkinson’s effects of Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi leaves. Int J Pharm Sci & Res 2026; 17(3): 908-20. doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.17(3).908-20.

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