PHYTOTHERAPY IN FUNGI AND FUNGAL DISEASE: A REVIEW OF EFFECTIVE MEDICINAL PLANTS ON IMPORTANT FUNGAL STRAINS AND DISEASES

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PHYTOTHERAPY IN FUNGI AND FUNGAL DISEASE: A REVIEW OF EFFECTIVE MEDICINAL PLANTS ON IMPORTANT FUNGAL STRAINS AND DISEASES

Asghar Sepahvand ¹, Behrouz Ezatpour ¹, Fazel Tarkhan ², Mahmoud Bahmani ³, Azadeh Khonsari ¹ and Mahmoud Rafieian-Kopaei^*4

Razi Herbal Medicines Research Center ¹, Student Research Committee ², Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran.

Leishmaniasis Research Center ³, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran.

Medical Plants Research Center ⁴, Basic Health Sciences Institute, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran.

ABSTRACT: Infectious diseases are among the most important common diseases worldwide that bring stupendous costs for human community. Medicinal plants are considered a rich source of antimicrobial agents and therefore can be used as antimicrobial remedies because of producing secondary metabolites. This article was designed to review the effective medicinal plants on fungi and fungal disease. In this study, the relevant articles published in Persian and English languages were searched for in the databases Magiran, Iranmedex, Irandoc, PubMed, Scopus, SID, Web of Science, and Science Direct using the search engine Google Scholar. To maximize the comprehensiveness of the search, the general terms antimicrobial, dermatophyte, mycotic, Iran, and anti-Candida as well as their Persian equivalents were used. AND and OR were used for combining searches. Medicinal herbs such as Zataria multiflora, Thymus vulgaris, Thymus kotschyanus, Punicagranatum L., Rosmarinus officinalis L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Urtica dioica L., Mentha piperita L. and Salvia officinalis L., Thymus vulgaris, Salvia officinalis, Eucalyptus globulus, Mentha piperita, Oliveria decumbens, Echinophora Platyloba, Thymus eriocalyx and Thymus X-porlock, Achillea millefolium, Artemisia sieberi, Cuminum cyminum, Nigella sativa, Heracleum persicum, Hyssopus officinalis, Matricaria recutital, Menta spicata, Foeniculum vulgare, Pimpinella anisum, Plargonium graveolens, Rosmarinus officinalis, Saturia hortensis, Zataria multiflora, Thymus kotschyanus, Zataria multiflora, Ziziphora clinopodioides, Mentha piperita L., Physalis alkekengi L., Hymenocrater longiflorus Benth and are the most important Medicinal herbs effective on fungal diseases. Medicinal herbs mentioned in this study due to phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities have antifungal effects.

Keywords:

Medicinal plants, Fungi, fungal strains

INTRODUCTION: Infectious diseases are among the most important common diseases worldwide that bring stupendous costs for human community¹. To date, around 200000 fungal species have been identified of which 100 species are pathogenic.

Fungal infections are widely various and can cause mucosal, submucosal, superficial, cutaneous and visceral diseases depending on the involved part of the body ².

Studies have demonstrated increased prevalence of opportunistic fungal infections for certain reasons such as AIDS, organ transplant, chemotherapy, and increased rate of cancer incidence that are associated with weak immune system, as well as expansion of resistance to the currently used antifungal drugs, which intensifies the necessity of conducting pharmacological investigations to develop new antifungal drugs and compounds.

In addition, most available drugs have limited antifungal activity or have no potential safety for systemic administration ³. Medicinal plants are considered a rich source of antimicrobial agents and therefore can be used as antimicrobial remedies because of producing secondary metabolites ^{4 - 6}. This article was designed to review the effective medicinal plants on fungi and fungal disease.

Search Strategy and Study Design: In this study, the relevant articles published in Persian and English languages were searched in the databases including Magiran, Iranmedex, Irandoc, PubMed, Scopus, SID, Web of Science, and Science Direct using the search engine Google Scholar. Manual search was also conducted on the references of the relevant articles. The main search terms used were essential oil, extract, fungi, plant, antifungal and their Persian equivalents. To maximize the comprehensiveness of the search, the general terms antimicrobial, dermatophyte, mycotic, Iran, and anti-Candida as well as their Persian equivalents were used. AND and OR were used for combining searches.

RESULTS: Based on the results in this review some plants with antifungal activity were obtained. The full lists of antifungal herbs are specified in Table 1.

DISCUSSION: Fungi are mostly plant like organisms. These organisms usually grow in warm and damp areas. Fungi mostly grow between the toes or on the scalp but may grow anywhere on or in the body. The symptoms of fungus infection include moist and red patches, scaling, and irritable, thickened or peeling skin. Sometimes infections are alongside with blisters and unpleasant odor. As showed, a lot of plants have antifungal activities, but the essential oils of Tea tree are good remedies to fight fungal infections. The essential oil of Tea tree should be applied directly to infected areas once, two or three times a day. Frequent applications for a period of time are important to complete the treatment period and diminish the signs infections ⁷.

Garlic also has anti-fungal activity, if it is applies to the infected regions three or four times per day. Garlic caps might be a good choice; however, its smell is a concern. Garlic is usually taken as a supplement but provides tremendous health benefits. Sometimes combination of medicinal plants extract such as mixture of essential oils or extracts of tea tree and black walnut are used to treat fungal infections. Vinegar is also frequently used alone or in addition to other remedies ⁷. Phenolic compounds are the predominant content of most of these plants. These chemicals have antioxidant and anti-microbial activities. Some of these compounds have synergistic effects. They also might have synergistic impact with conventional ant-fungal drugs. This is an important subject in complementary medicine ⁸. It should be noted that more plants have anti-bacterial activities than anti-fungal properties ⁹. This maters further support that anti-microbial activities of some of these plants might be due to the presence of phenolic compounds. Especially the present of high flavonoid contents ⁹.

TABLE 1: NATIVE MEDICINAL PLANTS NATIVE TO IRAN EFFECTIVE ON IMPORTANT FUNGAL STRAINS AND DISEASES

Authors	Fungi	Plant	Family	Compounds	Main findings
(Amini et al., 2012) ¹⁰	Pythium aphanidermatum, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium graminearum, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.	Zataria multiflora, Thymus vulgaris, Thymus kotschyanus	Labiatae	methanol	The results showed that the essential oils were highly effective on the four studied plant pathogenic fungi with mean growth inhibition of 100% at 200 μl/l concentration
(Sahraie-Rad et al., 2015) ¹¹	Malassezia fungus	Punica granatum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Matricariachamomilla, Urtica dioica, Mentha piperita Salvia officinalis L.	Punicaceae Labiatae Compositae Urticaceae Labiatae Labiatae	methanol	Based on evidence, medicinal plant-based extracts have remarkable effects on dandruff removal with less side effects, though it takes a long time to treat this concern. The results showed that applying the combination of medicinal plant-based extracts and natural ingredients with chemical compounds in pharmaceutical industry could optimize treatment
(Mousavi and Raftos, 2012) ¹²	Metrhizium sp. Ophiostoma sp. Trichoderma sp. Penicillium expansum	Thymus vulgaris Salvia officinalis Eucalyptus globulus Mentha piperita	Labiatae Labiatae Myrtaceae Labiatae	hydro distillation	The MIC and MFC were, respectively, 0.022 and 0.064 mg/ml for Metrhizium sp., 0.02 and 0.064 mg/ml for Ophiostoma sp., 0.018 and 0.048 mg/ml for Trichoderma sp. and 0.03 and 0.085 mg/ml for Penicillium expansum. Penicillium expansum showed the lowest inhibitory activity yet the difference was insignificant (p>0.05). Also, Trichoderma sp. was the most sensitive species to this combination. According to this experiment, this combination was found to have a wide spectrum of activities against all filamentous fungi examined in this study and may be recommended to control fungal diseases
(Amin et al., 2005) ¹³	Aspergillus niger Candidia albicans	Oliveria decumbens	Umbellifera	oil	The oil displayed high antimicrobial activity against all tested gram positive and gram negative bacteria and fungal strains
(Entezari et al., 2009) ¹⁴	Candidia albicans, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergilus niger	Echinophora Platyloba	Umbellifera	methanol	The growth of the three studied fungi, C. albicans, A. flavus, and A. niger, was not inhibited
(Rasooli and Owlia 2005) ¹⁵	Aspergillus parasiticus	Thymus eriocalyx and Thymus X-porlock	Labiatae	Ethanol	Static effects of these oils against A. parasiticus were at 250 ppm and lethal effects of T. eriocalyx and T. X-porlock were 500 and 1000 ppm of the oils, respectively. Aflatoxin production was inhibited at 250 ppm of both oils with T. eriocalyx being a stronger inhibitor. Transmission electron microscopy of A. parasiticus exposed to MIC level (250 ppm) of the oils showed irreversible damage to cell wall, cell membrane, and cellular organelles
(Gharachorlou and Shamami, 2013) ¹⁶	Dermatophytes	Artemisia L.	Asteraceae	Ethanol	Measurement of colonies diameter showed that there was significant difference in the groups administered with different doses of amino acid and herbal extract (P<0.05). Furthermore, it was shown that the efficacy of high doses of amino acid was higher than low doses; therefore, it can be argued that it acts dose-dependently. But compared with group 4, herbal extract showed better antifungal activity against trichophyton mentagrophytes. The strong effects of the essential oils of Artemisia are probably due to the high amount of terpenoids and flavonoids especially α-thujone content
(Naeini, et al., 2009) ¹⁷	Candida albicans	Achillea millefolium Artemisia sieberi Cuminum cyminum Nigella sativa Heracleum persicum Hyssopus officinalis Matricaria recutital Menta spicata Foeniculum vulgare Pimpinella anisum Plargonium graveolens Rosmarinus officinalis Saturia hortensis Zataria multiflora Thymus kotschyanus Zataria multiflora Ziziphora clinopodioides	Asteraceae Compositae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Labiatae Asteraceae Labitae Ranuculaceae Apiaceae Geraniaceae Labiatae Labiatae Labiatae Labiatae Labiatae	Ethanol	Fourteen (87%) out of the 16 plants were found to be active. These oils confirmed the existence of a significant activity against C. albicans tested with MICs of 150-2300 mg/ml using broth macrodilution method and the growth inhibition zone of 16-55 mm using disc diffusion method. The essential oils of Zatariamultiflora, Thymuskotschyanus, Cuminumcyminum, and Plargoniumgraveolens showed significant activity against C. albicans (P < 0.05)
(Rasooli, Fakoor et al., 2008) ¹⁸	Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) of Aspergillus parasiticus	Rosmarinus officinalis Trachyspermum copticum	Labiatae Umbelliferae	Ethanol	Aflatoxin production was inhibited at 450 ppm of both oils with R. officinalis being a stronger inhibitor
(Razzaghi-Abyaneh, Shams-Ghahfarokhi et al., 2008) ¹⁹	Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) of Aspergillus parasiticus	Satureja hortensis L.	Labiatae	Ethanol	Clearly show a new biological activity for S. hortensis L. as strong inhibition of aflatoxin production by A. parasiticus. Carvacrol and thymol, the effective constituents of S. hortensis L., may be useful to control aflatoxin contamination of susceptible crops in the field
(Hadi, Sorkhi et al., 2013) ²⁰	Penicilium digitatum Sacc	Urtica dioica , Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume, Matricaria chamomilla, Mentha piperita L.	Urticaceae Lauraceae Compositae Labiatae	ethanol	The results demonstrated the plant extracts and their components had inhibitory activities on the growth rate and mycelial weight of this fungus
(Torabzadeh and Panahi 2011) ²¹	Microsporum canis, Candida albicans, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Nocardia asteroids	Physalis alkekengi L.	Solanaceae	Ethanol	Ethanol extracts had the strongest effect with MIC=15.62 for all the studied fungi. Although acetone extracts have a broad spectrum of activities as with ethanol extracts, they should be used at higher concentration to fully inhibit C. albicans. Isolated N. asteroids were the most sensitive fungi in this study. C. albicans was the most resistant fungus compared to the three other fungal species
(Tolouee, et al., 2010) ²²	Aspergillus niger	Matricaria chamomilla L.	Compositae	Ethanol	These findings indicate the potential of M. chamomilla L. essential oil in preventing fungal contamination and subsequent deterioration of stored food and other susceptible materials
(Gandomi, et al., 2009) ²³	aflatoxin formation by Aspergillus flavus	Zataria multiflora Boiss.	Labiatae	Ethanol	The results suggested the potential substitution of the antifungal chemicals by this essential oil as a natural inhibitor to control the growth of molds in foods such as cheese
(Ahmadi et al., 2010)²⁴	Aspergillus niger Candida albicans.	Hymenocrater longiflorus Benth.	Labiatae	methanol	The results revealed that the essential oil and polar sub-fraction were effective mostly on Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans.
(Ebrahimabadi, et al., 2010) ²⁵	Candida albicans Aspergillus niger	Salvia eremophila Boiss	Labiatae	methanol	Among the fungal strains tested, C. albicans showed moderate sensitivity to both essential oil and extract while A. niger was only weakly sensitive to the oil. The maximum inhibition zones and MICs for microbial strains sensitive to the plant products were 8–32 mm and 7.8 to >500 lg/ml, respectively
(Ebrahimabadi et al., 2010) ²⁶	Candida albicans Aspergillus niger	Stachys inflata Benth	Labiatae	methanol	The plant showed a week antimicrobial activity against the tested microorganisms
(Bamoniri et al., 2010) ²⁷	Candida albicans Aspergillus niger	Semenovia tragioides Boiss	Umbelliferae	methanol	No effect
(Mahboubi and Bidgoli 2010) ²⁸	Candida albicans	Myrtus communis	Myrtaceae	methanol	The antifungal examinations showed that myrtle oil exhibited good antifungal activity against fungi. Myrtle oil showed significant antifungal activity when combined with amphotericin B
(Rasooli et al., 2006) ²⁹	Aspergillus niger	Thymus eriocalyx Thymus x-porlock	Labiatae	methanol	It was concluded that the essential oils could be safely used as preservatives
(Omidbeygi et al., 2007) ³⁰	Aspergillus Xavus	Thymus vulgaris Satureja hortensis Syzygium aromaticum	Labiatae Labiatae	methanol	The results showed that all essential oils could inhibit the growth of A. Xavus, and the thyme oil and summer savory showed the strongest inhibition at 350 ppm and 500 ppm, respectively
(Khosravi et al. 2009) ³¹	Pityriasis versicolor	Artemisia sieberi	Compositae	methanol	The results showed 71% improvement in clotrimazole group and 91.9% in Mycoderm group after two weeks of the treatment with a significant statistical difference between the two groups (p < 0.05). The rate of improvement was derived 67.7% and 100% in clotrimazole and Mycoderm groups after four weeks of the treatment, respectively (p < 0.001)
(Khosravi et al., 2013) ³²	dermatophytosis	Artemisia sieberi, Cuminum cyminum, Foeniculum vulgare, Heracleum persicum, Menta spicata, Nigella sativa, Rosmarinus officinalis, Zataria multiflora Ziziphora clinopodioides	Asteraceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Labiatae Ranunculaceae Labiatae Labiatae Labiatae	methanol	The most significant activity was observed with A. sieberi, exhibiting a lower MIC against dermatophytes than other plant oils (P < 0.05)
(Gavanji, Zaker et al., 2015) ³³	Candida albicans	Foeniculum vulgare Mill, Satureja hortensis L, Cuminum cyminum, Zataria multiflora	Umbellifera Labiatae Umbellifera Labiatae	methanol	Z. multiflora Boiss essential oil at MIC of 34 g/mL and minimal lethal concentration [i.e., minimal fungicidal concentration (MFC)] of 64 g/mL had more powerful anti-Candida activity than the other essential oils. C. cyminum essential oil showed the least effect on the tested fungus
(Karbin, Rad et al., 2009) ³⁴	Aspergilus flavus	Hyssopus officinalis, Cuminum cyminum, Thymusvulgaris cupressus arizonica	Labiatae Labiatae Labiatae Cupressaceae	methanol	The results showed that the essential oil of all plants affected the growth of Aspergillus flavus in vitro
(Sadeghi-Nejad, et al., 2010) ³⁵	Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Penicillium sp., Fusarium sp., Alternaria sp., Rhizopus sp., Mucor sp.	Satureja khuzestanica Jamzad	Labiatae	ethanolic	The findings showed that the ethanolic extract of S. khuzestanica leaves exhibited antifungal activity against all tested saprophytic fungi with MICs (625-5000 microg/ml)
(Falahati et al., 2005) ³⁶	Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, Tricophyton rubrum, Tricophyton schoenleinii, Tricophyton mentagrophytes Epedermophyton floccosum	Eucalyptus camaldulensis	Myrtaceae	Methanolic	Eucalyptus camaldulensis showed antifungal activity against all tested dermatophytes with MICs of 0.4-1.6 mg/mL according to inhibitory zones, 0.4-1.6 mg/mL according to agar dilution, and 0.2 to 1.6 mg/mL according to broth dilution
(Alizadeh and Shaabani, 2012) ³⁷	Candida albicans	Salvia officinalis L.	Lamiaceae	hydro-distillation	The oil showed high antimicrobial activity against C. albicans, two medically important pathogens compared with standard antibiotics
(Badiee et al., 2012) ³⁸	candida species	Salvia officinalis L	Lamiaceae		The MICs of essential oil extracts against C. albicans, C. parapsilosis, and C. krusei (standard species), as well as C. albicans and C. glabrata (isolated from patients) were 15.6, 3.9, 31.3, 31.3 and 1.9 μg/ml, respectively
(Rasouli-Sadaghiani et al., 2010) ³⁹	Glomus fasciculatum Glomus etuonicatumi Glomus intraradices	Ocimum basilicum	Labiatae		The results showed that mycorrhizal plants significantly had higher shoot and root dry weight, more leaf area, plant height, and lateral branches, as well as N, P, K, Ca, Fe, Cu and Mn concentration compared to non-inoculated plants
(Nejat et al., 2015) ⁴⁰	Trichophyton mentagrophytes Trichophyton verrucosum Microsporum gypseum	Thymus daenesis, Satureja bachtiarica, Althaea officinalis	Labiatae Labiatae Malvaceae	ethanolic	The results showed that propolis extract suppressed the growth of all tested fungi with different degrees
(Avijgan et al., 2012) ⁴¹	Candida vaginitis	Echinophora platyloba	Umbellifera	hydroalcoholic	Fourteen days after treatment, the positive culture of vaginal discharge was observed in 13 cases (43.3%) of the group treated with fluconazole, and 6 cases (20%) treated with fluconazole and Echino cream (p < 0.5). The rate of recurrent candida vaginitis was 17 cases (56.7%) in the group treated with fluconazole and 8 cases (26.7%) in the other group (p < 0.5)
(Mousavi et al., 2014) ⁴²	Oncorhynchus mykiss	Thymus vulgaris Salvia officinalis Eucalyptus globulus Mentha piperita	Labiatae Labiatae Myrtaceae Labiatae	hydroalcoholic	According to these findings, the combination use of essential oils can be proposed as a suitable antifungal therapeutic strategy in hatcheries
(Nabigol and Morshedi 2013) ⁴³	Rhizopus stolonifer, Penicillium digitatum, Aspergillus niger Botrytis cinerea	Thymus danensis Thymus carmanicus	Labiatae		Thymus sp. oils showed inhibitory effect even at low concentration (300μl/L) against B. cinerea and R. stolonifer as well as against A. niger and P. digitatum at 600μl/L. The primary concentration of both essential oils tested in vivo exhibited inhibitory activity against the four pathogens
(Mikaeili et al., 2014) ⁴⁴	Microsporum canis	Urtica dioica L	Urticaceae	hydroalcoholic	The extracts did not display considerable antifungal activity against M. canis compared with terbinafine. The MICs of aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts were 30 and 20 mg.ml^-1, respectively
(Mahmoudvand et al., 2014) ⁴⁵	Trichophyton mentagrophytes Trichophyton rubrum, Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum	Berberis vulgaris	Berberidaceae	Methanolic and Chloroform	In evaluating antidermatophytic effects of various extracts of B. vulgaris and berberine by disk diffusion MLB, it could be observed that all the aforementioned extracts and berberine had potent antidermatophytic effects
(Saharkhiz et al., 2012) ⁴⁶	C. albicans C. glabrata C.tropicalis C. krusei C.dubliniensis C.parapsilosis C. neoformance C. albicans C.dubliniensis C. tropicalis C.parapsilosis C. glabrata A. flavus A. fumigatus A. fumigates A. oryzae A. clavatus	Mentha piperita	Labiatae	hydrodistillation	The essential oil exhibited strong antifungal activities against the studied fungi at concentrations of 0.12 to 8.0 μL/mL
(Mahboubi and Bidgoli 2009) ⁴⁷	Candida albicans	Artemisia aucheri Boiss	Compositae	methanolic	The results showed that Pseudomonas aeruginosa was resistant to the oil and Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans showed the best sensitivity to the oil
(Verdian, et al., 2008) ⁴⁸	Candida albicans	Artemisia annua L.	Compositae	methanolic	The activity was found to be more pronounced against fungal organisms than against gram-positive and gram negative bacteria
(TO and AA) ⁴⁹	Microsporum canis, Trichophyton rubrum Epidermophyton floccosum	Artemisia siebri	Compositae	methanolic	Among the tested species, Epidermophyton floccosum was the most sensitive species fungal than the three combined. Trichophyton rubrum the most resistant species to the antifungal effects of alcoholic and aquatic extracts and Trichophyton rubrum and Microsporum canis is the most resistant to the effects of antifungal miconazole were found. Among the species tested, E. floccosum most sensitive species fungal than the three combined. T. rubrum and M. canis is the most resistant to the effects of Antifungal miconazole and Artemisia siebri were found. Our results demonstrate that A. sieberi extract have good effect on saprophyte
(Larypoor, Akhavansepahy et al., 2009) ⁵⁰	Epidermophyton floccosum Microsporum canis Microsporum gypseum, T. mentagrophytes T. mentagrophytes T. rubrum Trichophyton tonsurans	Hypercom perforatum	Hypericaceae	hydro distillation	The essential oil of H. perforatum sufficiently inhibited and killed all tested dermatophytes at all different dilutions
(Abdollahi et al., 2011) ⁵¹	Aspergillus niger	Zataria multiflora Boiss	Labiatae	Hydrodistillated	The essential oil inhibited sporulation of A. niger with no sporulation at 1,500 ppm
(Fateh et al., 2010) ⁵²	Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus niger, Penicillium gryseogenum, Alternaria, Microsporum canis Trichophyton mentagrophytes	Allium hirtifolium	Liliaceae	Alcoholic and aqueous extracts	Antifungal activity against all the tested fungal species with MICs of 0.058-0.8 mg/ml for alcoholic extract and 0.26-3.84 mg/ml for aqueous extract. The minimum fungicidal concentration of alcoholic and aqueous extracts ranged from 0.1 to 12.8 mg/ml and 0.6 to 68.26mg/ml, respectively.
(Khanahmadi et al., 2009) ⁵³	Candida albicans	Artemisia haussknechtii	Compositae	ethanolic extract	MIC of the extract against yeast was the lowest (2.5 µg/ml).
(Aghel et al., 2011) ⁵⁴	Candida albicans	Dittrichia gravolence	Compositae	Hydro distilled	Numerous essential oils have been tested for in vivo and in vitro antimycotic activity and some of them were found to be potential antifungal agents.
(Ahanjan et al., 2009) ⁵⁵	Fusarium oxysporum Candida albicans	Parrotia persica	Hammamelidaceae	methanol	These results revealed that the compound was 6-(ethoxymethyl)-tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2, 3, 4, 5-tetraol compound with 1- isopropyl-4- methoxybenzene, the compound was found responsible for antifungal activity against both F. oxysporum and C. albicans
(Arabi and Sardari 2010) ⁵⁶	Candida albicans Aspergillus fumigatus Asperigillus niger	Dalbergia sissoo, Lathyrus pratensis, Oreophysa microphyalla, Astragalus stepporum, Ebenus stellata, Sophora alopecuroides, Ammodendron persicum and Taverniera cuneifolia	Fabaceae	ethanol	The results showed activity against at least one of the microorganisms investigated in this study
(Naeini et al., 2014) ⁵⁷	Candida albicans	Cuminum cyminum Salvadora persica	Apiaceae Salvadoraceae	Alcoholic	The results suggested the possibility of substitution of the antifungal chemicals by C. cyminum essential oil and S. persica alcoholic extract as nature-based inhibitors to control the growth of the most important pathogenic Candida species and alternative therapies for candidiasis
(Pirbalouti et al., 2009) ⁵⁸	Candida albicans	Satureja bachtiarica, Thymus daenensis, Scrophularia striata, Thymbra spicata, Tanacetum polycephalum, Artemisia kermanensis, Ziziphus spina-christi, Trachyspermum ammi Carum copticum L. Quercus brantii Lindl.	Labiatae Labiatae Scrophulariaceae Labiatae Compositae Asteraceae Rhamnaceae Umbelliferae Umbelliferae Fagaceae	hydro-distillation	The herbs showed anti-Candida activity, including Saturejab achtiarica, Thymus daenensis, Thymbra spicata, Tanacetum polycephalum, and Trachyspermum ammi. Moreover, the extracts of Scrophularia striata and Ziziphus spinachristi were the most active at any of the tested concentrations.
(Hajieghrari et al., 2005) ⁵⁹	Rhizoctonia solani, Pyricularia orizea Fusarium oxysporum	Cymbopogon parkeri stapf	Gramineae	Hydro distillation	The results showed that concentrations of 600 microl/L of the essential oil completely inhibited the growth of all studied fungi. EC50 for Rhizoctonia solani, Pyricularia orizea, and Fusariumoxy sporum were 39.82, 72.00 and 43.63microl/L, respectively. The results indicated that the essential oil had strong fungi static activity
(Zihayat et al., 2013) ⁶⁰	Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes	Myrtus communis	Myrtaceae	Ethanolic	According to the disk diffusion, the ethyl acetate extract had the most optimal anti-fungal effect while according to autobiography, both ethyl acetate and methanol extracts in Rf=0.03 had anti-fungal effects and inhibition zone on the three examined fungi
(Naeini et al., 2011) ⁶¹	pityriasis versicolor	Zataria multiflora, Pelargoniumgraveolens Cuminum cyminum	Labiatae Geraniaceae Apiaceae	water-distillation	This study indicated that Z. multiflora, P. graveolens, and C. cyminum essential oils had considerable anti-Malassezia activities, deserving further investigation to be clinically used for the treatment of P. versicolor
(Noori and Taghavi, 2013) ⁶²	Aspergillus flavus Rhizopus stolonifer	Fistulina hepatica		Methanolic	F. hepatica methanolic extract showed antibacterial effects on a gram-positive bacterium (S. aureus) and also antifungal effects on A. flavus while it was not effective on a gram-negative bacterium (E. coli) and R. stolonifer
(Hardani and Sadeghi-Nejad, 2013) ⁶³	10 Candida isolates	Ixora brachiata			The anticandidal effects of the plant caused the growth inhibition zones of 12-14 mm and MICs of 5. 0-10 mg ml<sup>-1</sup> for both root and leaf extracts of I. brachiata at 24-hour incubation period
(Mikaeili et al. 2012) ⁶⁴	C. albicans	Astragalus verus	Fabaceae	methanol and acetone	The aqueous extract (40%) prevented heavy burden of C. albicans in the tissues and the skin in oral and topical application, respectively. The results indicated that A. verus could serve as a potential source of anti-candidal drugs
(Torbati et al., 2014) ⁶⁵	Alternaria alternate Fusarium nygamai Aspergillus ochraceus Arthrinium phaeospermum Cladosporium cladosporioides Aureobasidium pullulans Epicoccum nigrus Penicillium expansum Truncatella angustata Trichothecium roseum Trichoderma harzianum	Olive fruit rot Olea L.	Oleaceae	ethanol	Fungal infection caused significant increase in the extracted oil's acidity and peroxide values. However, there was no significant difference in the acidity and peroxide values among different treatments (fungal isolates)
(Ghasemi et al., 2005) ⁶⁶	Candida albicans C. kefyr	Ferula gummosa Boiss	Apiaceae	Hydro-distilation	The essential oil remarkably inhibited the growth of the tested microorganisms. The results indicated that the fruits could be used as an aromatic antimicrobial agent
(Faridi et al., 2008) ⁶⁷	Candida albicans Candida kefyr	Smyrniopsis aucheri	Apiaceae		The studied oil showed strong candidacidal activity. The antibacterial and antifungal effects may be due to the high level of bisabolol and pinene in the essential oil
(Faramarzi et al., 2008) ⁶⁸	Aspergillus niger Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus fumigatus Candida albicans Cryptococcus neoformans	Geum kokanicum	Rosaseae	Hydro-distillate	Inhibition zones for all fungal strains appeared in 1 mg per disc of the essential oil. A. flavus showed the zone even at 0.25 mg per disc and was the most susceptible fungal strain
(Yahyazadeh et al., 2008) ⁶⁹	Penicillium digitatum	Foeniculum vulgare, Thymus vulgaris, Eugenia caryophyllat Salvia officinalis	Umbelliferae Labiatae Myrtaceae Labiatae		Thyme and clove essential oils completely inhibited P. digitatum growth either when added into the medium 600 ll l-1 or by their volatiles with 24 ll per 8 cm diameter Petri dish. Sage and fennel oils did not show any inhibitory activity on this fungus. Scanning electron microscopy was done to study the mode of action of clove oil in P. digitatum and it was observed that treatment with the oil led to large alteration in hyphal morphology
(Razzaghi-Abyaneh, et al., 2013) ⁷⁰	Aspergillus parasiticus	Heracleum persicum	Apiaceae	ethyl acetate	H. persicum extract exerts antifungal and anti-AF activities by disrupting plasma membrane integrity and permeability mainly through interfering with ergosterol biosynthesis
(Iranshahi et al., 2008) ⁷¹	dermatophytes	Ferula latisecta	Umbelliferae		Ferulalatisecta fruits exerted activity against a range of human pathogenic dermatophytes
(Zarrin et al., 2010) ⁷²	Cryptococcus neoformans	Satureja Khuzestanica jamzad	Labiatae	ethanol	This study demonstrated that Satureja khuzestanica extract had anticrptococcal activity
(Farjam, 2012) ⁷³	Candida albicans	Salvia urmiensis	Labiatae	ethyl acetate	The greatest antimicrobial activity was seen against Bacillus subtilis (106.7μg/ml) and Candida albicans (5.3μg/ml)
(Naeini et al., 2010) ⁷⁴	Fusarium verticillioides Fusarium poae Fusarium equiseti	Zataria multiflora Cuminum cyminum Foeniculum vulgare Heracleum persicum	Labiatae Apiaceae Ranuculaceae Apiaceae		Z. multiflora and H. persicum showed the highest and lowest activity against toxigenic Fusarium isolates, whereas C. cyminum and H. persicum had the highest and lowest effect on non-toxigenic isolates, respectively. However, F. vulgare and Pinaceae had moderate effects on the tested fungi
(Ghaderi and Maleknezhad 2006) ⁷⁵	Candida albicans	Berberis vulgaris	Berberidaceae	ethanolic	Berberisvulgaris root extracts had anticandidal effects that were more prominent for ethanolic extract
(Behravan et al., 2004)⁷⁶	Aspergillus niger, Trichophyton rubrum, Trichoderma reesei Microsporum gypseum Candida albicans Saccharomyces cerevisiae	Satureja mutica	Labiatae	hydrodistillation	The essential oil was found to be fungicidal at ≥0.25 μl/ml against the filamentous fungi. The MIC of the oil against the two yeast strains was found to be 1333 ppm (1/750 v/v)
(Abolfazl, et al., 2014) ⁷⁷	Fusarium Oxysporum Aspergillus flavus Alternaria alternate	Stachys pubescens Coriandrum sativum, Cinnamomum zelanicum Bupleurum falcatum	Labiatae Umbelliferae Lauraceae Umbelliferae	hydro-distillation	These oils exhibited a remarkable potency against the fungi
(Farzaneh, Ahmadzadeh et al., 2005) ⁷⁸	Tiarosporella phaseolin Fusarium moniliforme	Artemisia scoparia, A. sieberi A. aucheri	Asteraceae	hydro-distillation	According to the bioassay results, the oils of A. aucheri and A. sieberi exhibited stronger antifungal activity. Minimum EC50 (41.406 microL/L) was resulted from A. aucheri on Rhizoctonia solani
(Kazemi Oskuee, Behravan et al., 2011) ⁷⁹	Candida albicans	Carum copticum	Umbelliferae		C. albicans appeared to display significant resistance
(Behnam et al., 2005) ⁸⁰	Rhizopus stolonifer, Botrytis cinerea Aspergillus niger	Mentha piperita Lavendula angustifolia	Labiatae Labiatae	hydrodistillation	Plate assays showed that the different concentrations of essential oils had antifungal activity against these fungi, and the essential oil of L. angustifolia showed stronger fungistatic activity
(Yousefzadi et al., 2009) ⁸¹	C. albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus niger	Tanacetum balsamita	Compositae	hydrodistillation	According to the disc diffusion method and MICs, the antimicrobial activity of the essential oil was moderate to high
(Dehghan et al., 2007) ⁸²	Aspergillus niger Candida albicans	Ferula szovitsiana	Umbelliferae	hydrodistillation	It was found that F. szovitsiana oil could be the most potent antimicrobial candidate with MIC of 1.25 mg
(Mohajeri et al., 2012) ⁸³	Penicellium citrinum	Zataria multiflora	Labiatae		It was found that the effect of different concentrations of essential oil on radial growth and sporulation was statistically significant (p<0.05)
(Darougheh et al., 2014) ⁸⁴		Carum Carvi L	Umbelliferae	distilled water
(Ramezani, 2005) ⁸⁵	Alternaria triticina	eucalyptus Citriodora	Myrtaceae		A complete inhibition of radial growth, dry weight, and spore germination was observed at 1500, 1000 and 100 ppm, respectively
(Ghorbanian et al., 2008) ⁸⁶	Aspergillus parasiticus	Azadirachta indica A. juss			The inhibition of aflatoxin synthesis by plant extracts was found to be time- and dose-dependent. The maximum inhibitory effect was 80–90% in the presence of 50% concentration that was significant compared with control samples (p< 0.05)
(Mahboubi and Kazempour 2011) ⁸⁷	Candida albicans Candida glabrata Aspergillus niger Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus parasiticus	Satureja hortensis, Trachyspermum copticum	Labiatae Umbelliferae		Two essential oils exhibited strong antimicrobial activity but the antimicrobial activity of T. copticum oil was higher than that of S. hortensis oil
(Sadeghi-Nejad and Deokule 2010) ⁸⁸	Microsporum, Trichophyton Epidermophyton	Pogostemon parviflorus		ethanolic	It completely prevented the growth of the dermatophytic species with MICs of 2.5-10 mg/mL
(Sonboli et al., 2010) ⁸⁹	Candida albicans Aspergillus niger Microsporium gypsium	Cymbopogon Olivieri	Gramineae	hydrodistillation	The oil exhibited moderate to high activity towards the microorganisms among which B. subtilis and C. albicans with inhibition zones of 20 mm and MICs of 3.75 mg/ml and 2.5 mg/ml, respectively, being more sensitive than the others
(Avijgan et al., 2010) ⁹⁰	Candida albicans	Echinophora Platyloba	Umbelliferae	ethanol	The results showed that Echinophora platyloba, at 2mg/ml or higher concentrations, effectively inhibited the growth of Candida albicans. In other words, C. albicans could grow on media containing 1mg/ml of the extract
(Aghel et al., 2007) ⁹¹	Trichophytumrubrum Trichophytumverrucosum Microsporumcanis Microsporumgypseum	Zataria multiflora Boiss	Labiatae	methanolic
(Shokri et al., 2011) ⁹²	Aspergillus flavus A. parasiticus A.ochraceus Fusarium verticillioides	Zataria multiflora Geranium pelargonium	Labiatae Geraniaceae		The essential oils exhibited considerable inhibitory effects on these important toxigenic fungi with different concentrations demenstrating various degrees of growth inhibition.
(Mohaddese and Nastaran, 2009) ⁹³	Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus niger	Zhumeria majdae	Lamiaceae		The oil displayed inhibitory effect against Bacillus subtilis, Proteus vulgaris, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger.
(Ayatollahi and Kazemi, 2015) ⁹⁴	Trichophyton mentagrophytes Trichophyton interdigitale Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum	Myrtus communis L. Cinnamomum zeylanicum	Myrtaceae Lauraceae	macro dilution method	According to the findings, natural plants could be used in traditional medicine for the prevention and treatment of dermatophytic infections
(Bahadoran et al., 2010) ⁹⁵	Candida albicans	garlic and thyme	Liliaceae Labiatae
(Shams Ghahfarokhi, et al., 2003) ⁹⁶	Trichophyton mentagrophytes	Onion and Garlic	Liliaceae		This inhibition reached a maximum of 100% for both extracts at 10% v/v concentrations
(Sadeghi, et al., 2013) ⁹⁷	A. niger C. albicans S. cerevisiae	Satureja Intermedia	Labiatae	hydrodistilled	The essential oil exhibited considerable antimicrobial activity against the studied bacteria and fungi
(Omran et al., 2009) ⁹⁸	C. albicans	Thymus vulgaris L	Labiatae		Thyme and lemon essential oils had the highest (0.008-0.271%) and lowest (1-32%) anticandidal activities, respectively
(Hadizadeh et al., 2009) ⁹⁹	Alternaria alternate	Urtica dioica L Thymus vulgaris L Eucalyptus spp Ruta graveolens L Achillea millefolium L	Urticaceae Labiatae Myrtaceae Rutaceae Compositae		Both the nettle and the thyme oils exhibited antifungal activity against A. alternata
(Gandomi et al., 2014) ¹⁰⁰	Penicillium citrinum Penicillium chrysogenum Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus niger Aspergillus parasiticus	Trachy spermum ammi	Umbelliferae	hydrodistillation	The fungal species were inhibited at concentrations of 1000–2000 ppm
(Mohseni et al., 2014) ¹⁰¹	Aspergillus parasiticus	Glycyrrhiza glabra	Fabaceae		Study of the antifungal and antitoxin activity of licorice extract on Aspergillus parasiticus revealed its antifungal properties as well as its effective ability to decrease aflatoxin production
(Sharifi‐Rad et al. 2015) ¹⁰²	Candida albicans Aspergillus niger	Lallemantia royleana	Labiatae	hydrodistilled	Antifungal screening of the essential oil of L. royleana showed that this oil significantly inhibited the growth of Candidaalbicans and Aspergillus niger (MIC=3.1 and 2.5 μg/mL, respectively).
(Nejad et al., 2014) ¹⁰³	Candida Aspergillus species	Myrtus communis	Myrtaceae	ethanolic	The MICs of Myrtus communis leaf extract ranged 0.625-5.0 μg/μL and 5-40 μg/μL against Candida spp. and Aspergillus spp., respectively
(Mehrabani et al., 2013) ¹⁰⁴	M. canis. M.gypseum m.mentagrophytes	Myrtus communis	Myrtaceae	hydroalcholic	Ethyl acetate followed by total methanolic extracts had the most optimal antifungal effects against the three tested genera of dermatophytes
(Bassiri-Jahromi et al., 2015) ¹⁰⁵	Candida albicans Candida parapsilosis Candida tropicalis Candida krusei Candida glabrata	Punica granatum L.	Punicaceae	methanol	Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) peel had potential antifungal activity against candidiasis, and was found to be an attractive option for the development of new management strategies for candidiasis
(Esfandiary et al., 2015) ¹⁰⁶	Candida glabrata Candida kefyer Candida krusei Candida parapsilosis	Zataria multiflora	Labiatae		In this study, optimal antifungal activity against non-albicans Candida species was exhibited by Z. multiflora despite a wide range of MICs (34875-139500 μg/ml)
(Abdollahzadeh et al., 2011) ¹⁰⁷	Candida albicans	Punica Granatum	Punicaceae	methanolic	None of the concentrations of MEPGP inhibited C. albicans
(Mahmoudvand et al., 2014) ¹⁰⁸	Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum	Nigella sativa	Apiaceae		The results showed that the essential oil and various extracts of N. sativa especially thymoquinone had potent antifungal effects on T. mentagrophytes, M. canis, and M. gypseum as pathogenic dermatophyte strains
(Jamalian, et al., 2012) ¹⁰⁹	Aspergillus flavus Aspergillus fumigatus Trichoderma harzianum Fusarium oxysporum	Matricaria recutita	Compositae	hydrodistillation	According to this study, M. recutita could be considered a potential candidate for development of effective antifungal formulations suitable for treatment of dermatophytosis and other fungal infections
(Ali et al., 2012) ¹¹⁰	Aspergillus flavus	Parsley Ginger Volatile	Umbelliferae Zingiberaceae	hydrodistillation and ethanol	Parsley essential oil showed a stronger inhibitory effect than ginger on A. flavus growth. In contrast, ginger ethanolic extract exerted a superior inhibitory activity for aflatoxin production at 20000 ppm (92.93%)
(Mannani et al., 2012) ¹¹¹	Microsporum canis Microsporum gypseum Microsporum nanum	Propolis		ethanolic	The MIC of propolis ethanolic extract was 0.2 µL/mL for M. gypseum, 0.05µL/mL for M. nanum and 0.025µL/mL for M. canis
(Asili et al., 2009) ¹¹²	Candida albicans	Ferula badrakema	Apiaceae	hydrodistillation	The essential oil of the fruits was moderately active against C. albicans as a fungal strain with MICs of 3.125 mg/ml, 12.5 mg/ml, and 6.25 mg/ml, respectively
(Morteza-Semnani et al., 2011) ¹¹³	Aspergilus niger Candida albicans	Mentha pulegium L.	Lamiaceae		M. pulegium oil's antimicrobial activity against Aspergilus niger and Candida albicans was concentration-dependent
(Alizadeh 2013) ¹¹⁴	Candida albicans	Salvia virgata	Labiatae	hydrodistillation	The oils of various ontogenetic conditions exerted moderate antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans
(Alizadeh et al., 2013) ¹¹⁵	Alternaria solani, Fusarium solani Rhizoctonia solani	Thymus daenensis	Labiatae	hydro distillation	T. daenensis oil exhibited great antifungal activities against three phathogenic fungi
(Hadian et al., 2007) ¹¹⁶	Tiarosporella phaseolina, Fusarium moniliforme Fusarium solani	Artemisia khorasanica	Compositae	hydro-distillation	The oil was effective and showed fungi static activity
(Jahansooz et al., 2008) ¹¹⁷	Colletotrichum gleosporoides, Botrytis cinerea Fusarium verticillioides Aspergillus niger	Ferula gummosa	Apiaceae		The antifungal activities of oils against four plant phytopathogenic fungi showed that the oil of all samples were effective on growth of B. cinerea with increasing the concentrations, and the effect was less pronounced for 1200 ppm. However, the various concentrations of F. gummosa oil in each sample coud not affect F. verticillioides growth. The growth of C. gleosporoides and A. niger was inhibited only in Semnan and Kashan, respectively. The results showed that F. gummosa essential oils could be used as antifungal agents to manage some diseases due to plant fungi
(Morteza-Semnani and Saeedi 2009) ¹¹⁸	Aspergilus niger Candida albicans	Stachys persica	Labiatae	Hydro distillation	The S. persica oil exhibited concentration-dependent antimicrobial effect on Bacillus subtilis, Aspergilus niger, and Candida albicans
(Iranshahi et al., 2008)¹¹⁹	Candida albicans	Ferula latisecta	Apiaceae		The MIC of the oil was determined using broth dilution method against four bacterial and one fungal strains. The MIC of the oil was found to be 0.195 mg/ml against Candida albicans
(Yousefzadi et al., 2013) ¹²⁰		khuzistanica Jamzad	Lamiaceae	hydro-distillation	Based on the findings, it was concluded that the essential oil of S. khuzistanica and its major components could have potentially further anti-bacterial and anti-cancer uses; however, far more extensive testing of toxicities of normal (i.e. primary) cells is needed
(Razavi and Nejad-Ebrahimi 2010) ¹²¹		Zosima absinthifolia	Umbelliferae	hydro-distillation	The major components of the oil were octyl acetate (87.48%), octyl octanoate (5.03%), and 1-octanol (2.37%). The oil showed modest to weak allelopatic effects and high antibacterial effects against Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus pumilus, and modest to strong effects on different bacteria and fungi
(Khosravi et al., 2011) ¹²²	Candida glabrata	Artemisia sieberi Origanum vulgare	Compositae Labiatae	hydro-distillation	According to broth macrodilution method, all the tested C. glabrata isolates were sensitive to the essential oils in a concentration-dependent manner. MICs varied from 37.4 to 4781.3 μg/ml for A. sieberi (mean: 1496.4 μg/ml) and 0.5 to 1100 μg/ml for O. vulgare (mean: 340.2 μg/ml) essential oils
(Mikaeili et al., 2012) ¹²³	Trichophyton verrucosum	Astragalus verus	Fabaceae		Aqueous extract displayed promising antidermatophytic activity
(Avijgan et al., 2014) ¹²⁴	Candida albicans	Echinophora platyloba	Umbellifera	ethanolic	The results of this study showed a potent synergistic effect of E. platyloba ethanolic 34 extract
(Safaei-Ghomi and Ahd 2010) ¹²⁵		Eucalyptus largiflorens Eucalyptus intertexta	Myrtaceae	methanol	The results of MIC study revealed that the essential oil had a stronger activity and broader spectrum than those of the methanol extract
(Safaei-Ghomi and Batooli 2010) ¹²⁶	Aspergillus niger Candida albicans	Eucalyptus sargentii	Myrtaceae		According to the bioassay results, the oil exhibited moderate to high antimicrobial activity
(Khakshoor and Pazooki 2014) ¹²⁷	Candida albicans Aspergillus niger Saprolegnia parasitica Fusarium solani Saprolegnia sp.	Gelliodes carnosa		Ethanol ethyl acetate methanol	Strong antifungal activities were exerted by E4 against Fusarium sp.2, Fusarium sp.1, F. solani, and Saprolegnia parasitica (MIC: 500 μg/ml)
(Ramezani et al., 2006) ¹²⁸	Aspergillus niger Candida albicans	Artemisia kopetdaghensis	Asteraceae	Hydro-distillation	The essential oil showed a moderate antimicrobial activity
(Kazemi et al., 2009) ¹²⁹	Candida albicans	Artemisia tschernieviana	Asteraceae	Hydro-distillation	The results showed that this oil was active against all the tested strains
(Kordali et al., 2005) ¹³⁰		Artemisia absinthium Artemisia santonicum Artemisia spicigera	Asteraceae	Hydro-distillation	The results showed that all of the oils had potent inhibitory effects at a very broad spectrum against all of the tested fungi
(Sonboli et al., 2007) ¹³¹	Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus niger	Tetrataenium lasiopetalum	Apiaceae	Hydro-distillation	According to the bioassay results, the oil exhibited moderate to high antimicrobial activity
(Mahboubi and Kazempour, 2015) ¹³²	Trichophyton rubrum Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Microsporum canis M. gypseum, Trichophyton schoenleinii Trichophyton verrucosum	Allium hirtifolium	Liliaceae	aqueous extract	The anti-fungal activity of A. hirtifolium was great compared with ketoconazole
(Atai et al., 2009) ¹³³	Candida albicans	Zingiber officinale	Zingiberaceae	Ethanolic	The results showed that the ethanolic extract was effective on Candida albicans (2 mg/ml) at the concentration of 1:5. The study indicated that ginger extract could be used in treatment of oral candidiasis
(Zia et al., 2009) ¹³⁴	Trichophyton mentagrophytis Trichophyton rubrum Trichophyton verrucosum	Propolis		alcoholic	Alcoholic extract of propolis showed antifungal activity against these three species. MIC of alcoholic extract of the propolis per 1 mm of the medium was 0.00625 for T. verrucosum, 0.0125 for T. mentagrophytis, and 0.05 for T. rubrum
(Soltani et al., 2009) ¹³⁵	Candida albicans	Garlic	Liliaceae	chloroformic	The results showed that allicin activated the immune system against this fungus. Macrophages with allicin produced more nitric oxide compared to the group without allicin
(Modaressi et al., 2013) ¹³⁶	Aspergillus niger Aspergillus candidus Candida albicans	Mindium laevigatum	Campanulaceae	Methanolic	The antifungal activity of the extracts against different fungi varied from 14.0 to 3 mm and the MICs from 50 to 400 μg.mL
(Khosravi et al., 2009) ¹³⁷	Candida albicans	Zataria multiflora	Labiatae	steam distillation	These data may explain the increased rate of yeast clearance and reduced dissemination to the viscera in Z. multiflora-treated mice.
(Khosravi et al., 2011) ¹³⁸	Aspergillus Fumigatus and Aspergillus Flavus	Cuminum cyminum, Ziziphora clinopodioides Nigella sativa	Apiaceae Labiatae Apiaceae	water distillation	The results demonstrated the anti-Aspergillus activities of C. cyminum, Z. clinopodioides and N. sativa essential oils, which strengthens the potential use of these substances as anti-mould in the future
(Mousavi and Kazemi, 2015) ¹³⁹	Trichophyton mentagrophytes Trichophyton interdigitale, Microsporum canis, and Microsporum gypseum	Myrtus communis Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume
(Massiha and Zolfaghar Muradov, 2015) ¹⁴⁰	Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton schoenleinii, Epidermophyton flocosum	Calendula Officinalis Acacia arabica Altheae officinalis Ginkgo biloba Juglans regia, Osimum basilicum, Solanum nigrum Hypericum perforatum Urtica dioica Anagalis arvensis	Compositae Mimosaceae Malvaceae Ginkgoaceae Juglandaceae Labiatae Solanaceae Hypericaceae Urticaceae Primulaceae	methanol	Plants under review showed antifungal activity against all the studied dermatophytes with MICs of 0.001- 0.016 mg/mL according to inhibitory zone, 0.3-12.8 mg/mL according to agar dilution, and 0.2-12.5 mg/mL according to broth dilution
(Khosravi-Darani et al., 2013) ¹⁴¹	Candida albicans	Honey and mint extract Honey and ginger extract Honey and Zataria Extract Honey and ginger starch	Labiatae Zingiberaceae Labiatae Zingiberaceae	ethanolic	The results showed that ginger extract had a more significant impact on the microorganism growth compared to other extracts
(Khoshkholgh-Pahlaviani et al., 2013) ¹⁴²	Candida Albicans	Anagalis Arvensis	Myrsinaceae	methanol	Methanol extract of A. arvensis exerted inhibitory effect on the standard strain and clinical isolates of C. albicans. The MIC of the extract was lower than that of nystatin while the combination of the growth inhibitory concentration was greater than nystatin alone
(Sonboli et al., 2004) ¹⁴³	Candida albicans Saccharomyces cerevisiae Aspergillus niger Microsporium gypsium	Nepeta crispa	Labiatae	Hydro-distillation	The oil displayed a remarkable antifungal activity against all the studied fungi
(Sonboli et al., 2004) ¹⁴⁴	Candida albicans Saccharomyces cerevisiae Aspergillus niger	Satureja laxiflora	Labiatae	Hydro-distillation	It was clearly seen that the antifungal activity of S. laxiflora oil at high volume (2.4 μl) mainly is similar to that of the standard antibiotic, nystatine. In comparison, a higher volume of the oil indicated a potent inhibitory activity against the tested bacteria than the positive control, ampicillin
(Sonboli et al., 2006) ¹⁴⁵	Aspergillus niger Candida albicans Saccharomyces cerevisiae	S. santolinifolia S. hydrangea S. mirzayanii	Labiatae	Hydro-distillation	The most susceptible microbial strains were Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus epidermidis (MIC of 1.25 mg/ml) followed by Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans (MIC of 2.5 mg/ml)
(Sonboli et al., 2006) ¹⁴⁶	Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Aspergillus niger	Gontscharovia popovii	Labiatae	Hydro-distillation	According to bioassay results, the oil exhibited strong antimicrobial activity against all the tested fungi and bacteria
(Yousefzadi et al., 2007) ¹⁴⁷	Candida Albicans Saccharomyces cerevisiae Aspergillus niger	Salvia multicaulis, S. sclarea S. verticillata	Labiatae	Hydro-distillation	In contrast to antibacterial activity, the oils exhibited no or slight antifungal property, and only the S. multicaulis oilshowed weak activity against the two tested yeasts, C. albicans and S. cerevisiae
(Taran et al., 2011) ¹⁴⁸	Candida Albicans Saccharomyces cerevisiae	Quercus brantii	Fagaceae	Ether and hydroalcoholic	Hydroalcoholic and ether Q. brantii extracts inhibited inhibitory effects on fungi, gram-positive bacteria, and gram-negative bacteria
(Nasiri Kashani et al., 2009) ¹⁴⁹	Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus Flavus Aspergillus niger Penicillium gryseogenum Alternaria Trichophyton mentagrophytes Microsporum canis	Allium Hirtifolium	Liliaceae	Ethanolic and aqueous	The MFC of aqueous and alcoholic extracts was derived 0.6-26.68 mg/ml and 0.1-28.12 mg/ml, respectively
(Banaeian-Boroujeni, et al., 2015) ¹⁵⁰	Candida albicans	Salvia Officinalis	Labiatae	Ethanolic	S. officinalis extract inhibited C. albicans growth and could be effective in treating vaginitis due to C. albicans
(Davoudi et al., 2014) ¹⁵¹	Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae	Helichrysum arenarium L.	Compositae	Distillation
(Ataei Azimi et al., 2007) ¹⁵²	Fusarium solani Fusarium poae	Sorghum Bicolor (L.)	Gramineae	Aqueous, alcoholic, phenolic	Alcoholic extract at 20, 30, and 40 mg concentrations was studied and 30-mg concentration was found to exert an effect 2.5 times higher than those of the two other concentrations. Phenolic compounds at 0, 10, and 25 g/l were effective on both fungi
(Akbari 2007) ¹⁵³	Fluconazol-Resistant Susceptible Candida albicans	Thymus valgaris Crigahum vulgare L.	Labiatae Labiatae	Aqueous, methanolic	Methanolic T. vulgaris extractat 0.49-125 mg/ml followed by C. vulgare essential oil and the aqueous extracts of both plants displayed antifungal activity
(Avijgan et al., 2006) ¹⁵⁴	Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, Tricophyton rubrum, Tricophyton schoenleinii, Tricophyton mentagrophytes Trichophyton verrucosum	Echinophora platyloba	Umbellifera	Hydroalcoholic	T. schoenleinii and T. verrucosum were consistently sensitive, T. rubrum and M. gypseum were consistently resistant, and tricomython and M. canis at 250 mg were sensitive
(Mohammadi, et al., 2010) ¹⁵⁵	Aspergillus nidulance Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus Flavus Aspergillus niger	Cinnamomum Zeylanicum	Lauraceae	Microdilution	Antifungal effect was exerted on all the strains
(Abdolmaleki, et al., 2011) ¹⁵⁶	Rhizoctonia solani Fusarium onysporam Bipolaris sorokiniana Phytophthora drechsleri	Mentna Pipertia	Labiatae	Aqueous, methanolic, ethanolic, acetone, and chloroform	Ethanolic and chloroform extracts displayed no antifungal effects. Methanolic and acetone extracts exerted little effect on Fusarium. Aqueous extract at 500 ppm exerted antifungal effect on P. drechsleriand at 100 ppm on B. sorokiniana. For the other two fungi, the extract at 2000 ppm caused no effect on the fungus growth
(Najib – Zadeh et al., 2011) ¹⁵⁷	Candida albicans	Myrtus communis	Myrtaceae	Distillation	Treatment with M. communis essential oil at a concentration two times higher than MIC did not suffice to eradicate candidiasis in immunosuppressed rats; hence, higher concentrations of this essential oil should be used
(Mohammadi et al., 2007) ¹⁵⁸	Fluconazol-Resistant Susceptible Candida albicans	Boswellia Serrata	Burseraceae	Distillation	The inhibitory effect of the essential oil on all fungal strains of C. albicans
(Mohammadi, et al., 2008) ¹⁵⁹	Aspergillus nidulance Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus Flavus Aspergillus niger	Myrtus Communisl	Myrtaceae	Distillation	The essential oil had optimal antifungal effects on all Aspergillus isolates 5 isolates up to 1.8; 8 isolates up to 1:16; 10 isolates up to 1:32
(Babaei et al., 2014) ¹⁶⁰	Aspergillus Flavus	Aloe vera	Liliaceae	Acetone, methanolic, ethanolic, aqueous	The greatest antifungal activity was seen at 105 microl/l of the acetone extract
(Diba et al., 2010) ¹⁶¹	Candida albicans Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus niger	Propolis		Alcoholic	The inhibitory effect of the extract at 0.25 concentration was observed on half of the fungi (C. albicans), at 3.2℅ g/α affected Aspergillus, but at 0.125 was effective on A. niger
(Dehghan et al., 2013) ¹⁶²	Candida Cryptococcus neoformans	Ferula szowitsiana	Umbelliferae	Chloroform	The greatest effect of the extract was exerted on C. neoformans with inhibition zone diameter of 23.1 mm and no effect on M. canis was seen
(Motaharinia et al., 2011) ¹⁶³	malassezia furfur	Althaea officinalis Glycyrrhiza glabra root	Malvaceae Fabaceae	Alcoholic	This study demonstrated that A. officinalis flower extract exerted greater antifungal effects than A. officinalis root and G. glabra root extracts
(Shoaie, et al., 2012) ¹⁶⁴	Candida albicans Candida tropicalis Candida krusei Candida glabrata	Teucrium Polium Zingiber Officinale	Labiatae Zingiberaceae	Hydroalcoholic	The extracts of the two plants exerted antifungal effects on each other and no effect on the fungi. Z. officinale exerted greater antifungal effect than T. polium
(Haghighi et al., 2011) ¹⁶⁵	Candida albicans	Petroselinum Crispum Cuminum cyminum Bunium persicum	Labiatae Umbelliferae Umbelliferae Umbelliferae	Hydroalcoholic	The essential oils were found to exert inhibitory effects at 146, 620, 580, and 48 microg/ml
(Afshari, et al., 2013) ¹⁶⁶	Aspergillus Flavus	Thymus vulgaris Satureja Foeniculum Eucalyptus camadulensis Rosmarinus officinalis Ferula gummosa boiss	Labiatae Labiatae Umbelliferae Myrtaceae Labiatae Umbelliferae	Distillation	The concentrations of 800 and 1000 PPM of Avishan and Razianeh had the most effects on inhibition of Aflatoxin B preparation
(Roudbary et al., 2009) ¹⁶⁷	Candida albicans Candida dubliniensis	Crocus satirum	Iridaceae	Ethanolic	Alcoholic C. satirum extract had antifungal effects with greater effects on C. dubliniensis than on C. albicans
(Moslemi et al., 2015) ¹⁶⁸	Candida albicans Fusarium oxysporum Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus Flavus Aspergillus niger	Ephedra Pachyclada	Ephedraceae	Methanolic Aqueous Chloroform	These extracts exerted optimal antifungal effects on C. albicans growth but no effect on other fung.
(Aali, et al., 1998) ¹⁶⁹	Candida albicans	Myrtus communis	Myrtaceae	Methanolic	The methanol extract at 20 mg concentration exerted greater antifungal effect than clotrimazole at basin concentration
(Hoseini et al., 2011) ¹⁷⁰	Candida albicans	Carvacrol ( Satureja)	Labiatae	Essential oil	Carvacrol essential oil displayed suitable antifungal effects on sensitive and resistant strains to fluconazole in C. albicans
(Shams Ghahfarokhi, et al., 2007) ¹⁷¹	Epidermophyton floccosum Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, Tricophyton rubrum Tricophyton mentagrophytes	onion , garlic	Liliaceae	Aqueous	In this study, the effects of the plants were studied by trebniafine and the greatest antifungal effect was exerted by trebniafine on M. canis and M. gypseum. M. canis displayed the highest resistance to our extract. Overall, aqueous extract exerted the greatest inhibitory effect on dermatophytes at lower concentrations
(Mohammadpour et al., 2011) ¹⁷²	Candida albicans	Zataria multiflora Satureja Bachthiarica Thymus vulgaris	Labiatae	Essential oil	The MIC of S. bachtiarica forfungal growth was lower than those of other extracts while T. vulgaris exhibited the greatest antifungal property
(Sepahvand et al., 2005) ¹⁷³	Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Fusarium sp Cryptococcus neoformans Epidermophyton floccosum Microsporum gypseum, Tricophyton rubrum Trichophyton verrucosum Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus Flavus	Satureja Khuzestanica jamzad	Labiatae	Distillation	S. khuzestanica could exert 100% inhibitory effects on all fungi except for T. The inhibitory effects on T. ??? were various at different concentrations
(Falahati, et al., 2011) ¹⁷⁴	Aspergillus niger Microsporum gypseum Candida albicans Saccharomyces cerevisiae Aspergillus niger	Peganum Harmala	Zygophyllaceae	Alkaloid	1-3.2 mg/ml of the extract exerted antifungal effects on all fungi
(Nodoushan, et al., 2007) ¹⁷⁵	Candida albicans Candida tropicalis Candida krusei Candida glabrata	Garlic (Allium sativum)	Liliaceae	Aqueous	C. tropicalis, C. glabrata, and C. albicans were sensitive to A. sativum and displayed optimal antifungal effects but C. krusei was the most resistant species to the extract.
(janani, et al., 2011) ¹⁷⁶	Candida albicans	Myrtus communis	myrtacea	Cream	This study demonstrated that M. communis cream has similar therapeutic effects to clotrimazole cream and even more effective in improving certain symptoms than this cream
(Norooz-mirzaaghakhani, et al., 2015) ¹⁷⁷	Candida albicans Candida parapsilosis Candida krusei Candida glabrata	Anethum Graveolens	Umbelliferae	Aqueous	This study demonstrated that A. graveolens seed had no antifungal effect.
(Falahati et al., 2015) ¹⁷⁸	Candida albicans, Candida glabrata and Saccharomyces cerevisiae	Pistacia atlantica	Anacardiaceae		Based on GC/MS analysis, the main components of P. atlantica fruit extract were β-myrcene (41.4%), α- pinene (32.48%), and limonene (4.66%), whereas the major components of P. atlantica fruit extract were trans-caryophyllene (15.18%), α-amorphene (8.1%) and neo-allo-ocimene (6.21%). According to the finding, all the components exhibited both fungistatic and fungicidal activities with MICs of 6.66-26.66 mg/mL and MFCs of 13.3-37.3 mg/mL, respectively. Among the studied extracts, the methanolic P. atlantica fresh fruit extract was significantly more effective than other extracts (P<0.05)

CONCLUSION: More clinical Studies to determine the safety and effectiveness of medicinal plants and possible toxic ingredients and their active substances can lead to the production of safe and efficient drugs for fungal strains and diseases.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This study was financially supported by Razi Herbal Medicines Research Center, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST: We declare that we have no conflict of interest.

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How to cite this article:

Sepahvand A, Ezatpour B, Tarkhan F, Bahmani M, Khonsari A and Rafieian-Kopaei M: Phytotherapy in fungi and fungal disease: A review of effective medicinal plants on important fungal strains and diseases. Int J Pharm Sci Res 2017; 8(11): 4473-95. doi:10.13040/ IJPSR.0975-8232.8(11).4473-95.

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Sr No: 1

Page No: 4473-4495

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Cited By: 16

Language: English

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Authors: A. Sepahvand, B. Ezatpour, F. Tarkhan, M. Bahmani, A. Khonsari and M. Rafieian-Kopaei*

Authors Address: Medical Plants Research Center, Basic Health Sciences Institute, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran.

Email: rafieian@yahoo.com

Received: 16 March, 2017

Revised: 13 June, 2017

Accepted: 29 June, 2017

DOI: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.8(11).4473-95

Published: 01 November, 2017

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ISSN (Online): 0975-8232,
ISSN (Print): 2320-5148

International Journal Of
Pharmaceutical Sciences And Research

An International Journal published monthly
An Official Publication of Society of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research

PHYTOTHERAPY IN FUNGI AND FUNGAL DISEASE: A REVIEW OF EFFECTIVE MEDICINAL PLANTS ON IMPORTANT FUNGAL STRAINS AND DISEASES

Article Information

International Journal Of Pharmaceutical Sciences And Research

An International Journal published monthly An Official Publication of Society of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research

PHYTOTHERAPY IN FUNGI AND FUNGAL DISEASE: A REVIEW OF EFFECTIVE MEDICINAL PLANTS ON IMPORTANT FUNGAL STRAINS AND DISEASES

Article Information

International Journal Of
Pharmaceutical Sciences And Research

An International Journal published monthly
An Official Publication of Society of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research